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Necessity and Proportionality in International Peace and Security Law (The Lieber Studies Series)
Necessity and proportionality hold a firm place in the international law governing the use of force by states, as well as in the law of armed conflict. However, the precise contours of these two requirements are uncertain and controversial. The aim of Necessity and Proportionality in International Peace and Security Law is to explore how necessity and proportionality manifest themselves in the modern world under the law governing the use of force and the law of armed conflict, and how they relate to each other. The book explores the ways in which necessity and proportionality are applied in practice and addresses pressing legal issues in the law on the use of force, including the controversial "unwilling and unable" test for the use of force in self-defense, drones and targeted killing, the application of this legal regime during civil war, and the need for further transparency in states' justification for the use of force in self-defense. The analysis of the role of military necessity within the law of armed conflict on the modern battlefield focuses on the history and nature of the principle of military necessity, the proper application of the principle of proportionality, how commanders should account for mental harm in calculating proportionality, and the role artificial intelligence and autonomous weapons systems may play in proportionality analysis. The book concludes with a discussion of the potential role of proportionality in the law governing post-conflict contexts.
Nepal’s Peace Process: Issues and Challenges (Routledge Studies in Conflict, Security and Development)
This volume provides a holistic overview of the long peace process in Nepal following the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2006.The date of 21 November 2021 marked the 15th anniversary of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) which concluded the decade-long civil war that had ravaged Nepal. Despite avoiding a resurgence of statewide conflict, Nepal’s post-conflict era has been far from perfect. This era has witnessed ethnic violence, rampant corruption, the politicisation of key public institutions and a failure to fully implement the provisions of the CPA. The resulting lack of socio-economic progress has led to large-scale dissatisfaction within the country and even given rise to elements within Nepal who reject the framework of the CPA and the 2015 constitution.With a focus on the years following the 2015 constitution, this book offers an analysis of post-conflict Nepal and explores issues relating to ex-combatants, transitional justice, women, socio-economic affairs, and federal governance. The contributors are all scholar-practitioners, some of whom had direct involvement in the peace process, and are therefore able to offer unique insights into the processes and challenges of Nepal’s long journey to addressing past grievances and promoting future peace in the country.This book will be of interest to students of peace studies, Asian politics, security studies and International Relations.
New Perspectives on the Roman Civil Wars of 49–30 BCE
Offering new and original approaches to the Roman civil wars of 49-30 BCE, the eleven papers presented here for the first time shed light on this crucial moment in the forging of Roman identity. They engage with a variety of problems and topics in political discourse (diplomacy, the concept of libertas, divine paternity); socio-economic structures (allied rulers, military officials, civil war finances, Agrippa's family); material culture (the coinage of Julius Caesar, the physical remains of Corfinium); and literary commemoration (Sallust on trauma, the lost Histories of Asinius Pollio). The case studies presented here contribute to our understanding of a period that is just as fundamental for our view of the Romans as it was to the Romans themselves. Arguing for the unity of the period in question, the volume deploys a multiplicity of methodologies to analyse how the trauma of armed conflict and the breakdown of accepted socio-cultural models not only mediated the contemporary experience of Roman civil war, but also left a lasting impression upon how Romans viewed the world. Incisive and critical, these contributions by a diverse team of international researchers, both emerging scholars and leaders in their fields, offer a new window into the world of the late Republic and early Principate.
Ocean Boundary Making: Regional Issues and Developments (Routledge Revivals)
Originally published in 1988, this book was written at a time when many nations were engaged in various forms of ocean boundary making. This created new regional pressures and the need for collective regional responses to these issues. This book examines the issues at stake and the boundary making processes. It discusses these in a general way, showing how the Third UN conference on the Law of the Sea helped resolve the problems whilst leaving some issues unresolved. The book goes onto examine the issues and boundary making processes in 7 important areas of the world
Operational Psychology: A New Field to Support National Security and Public Safety
Details the growth, roles, and applications of this new specialty aiming to protect American national and public well-being in the face of increasing and novel threats both inside and outside the United States.In this age of asymmetric warfare, increasing home-grown terrorism, and continuing threats from abroad, a new specialty has emerged and expanded—operational psychology. Operational psychology plays a unique role in supporting issues of national security, national defense, and public safety. In this book, authors Mark A. Staal and Sally C. Harvey, both operational psychologists and retired military colonels, lead a team of experts explaining the field, its many roles, and how it is expanding. Topics include its application in intelligence, counterintelligence, and counterterrorism activities, consultation in high-risk training, criminal investigations including those of internet crimes against children, threat assessment, interrogations, aviation, personnel selection, and leadership development. The text addresses the ethical questions and controversies that surround some of these roles, such as those associated with interrogation techniques. It also describes the role of operational psychologists in activities ranging from assessing and training people for maximum resiliency and hardiness to profiling people and groups of concern in national security investigations.
The Other Powers: Studies in the Foreign Policies of Small States (Routledge Revivals)
Originally published in 1972, this book examines the scope and possibilities for small states in the conduct of their foreign policies. In the introduction the editor discusses the problem of defining the term ‘small state’ and outlines the restraints they face and the type of international roles they play. The subsequent chapters analyse the foreign policies of Norway, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Zambia, Israel, Cyprus, Cuba, Singapore and New Zealand. In each study the author examines the factors which shape that country’s foreign policy objectives, the organizational structures employed to formulate and implement foreign policy, the type and level of international involvement and the methods used to deal with the political, economic and security issues which make up and stem from the external policies. The book will be of interest to specialists and students of government, foreign policy analysis and other branches of international relations
The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies (Oxford Handbooks)
Few scholarly fields have developed in recent decades as rapidly and vigorously as Holocaust Studies. At the start of the twenty-first century, the persecution and murder perpetrated by the Nazi regime have become the subjects of an enormous literature in multiple academic disciplines and a touchstone of public and intellectual discourse in such diverse fields as politics, ethics and religion. Forward-looking and multi-disciplinary, this handbook draws on the work of an international team of forty-seven outstanding scholars. The handbook is thematically divided into five broad sections. Part One, Enablers, concentrates on the broad and necessary contextual conditions for the Holocaust. Part Two, Protagonists, concentrates on the principal persons and groups involved in the Holocaust and attempts to disaggregate the conventional interpretive categories of perpetrator, victim, and bystander. It examines the agency of the Nazi leaders and killers and of those involved in resisting and surviving the assault. Part Three, Settings, concentrates on the particular places, sites, and physical circumstances where the actions of the Holocaust's protagonists and the forms of persecution were literally grounded. Part Four, Representations, engages complex questions about how the Holocaust can and should be grasped and what meaning or lack of meaning might be attributed to events through historical analysis, interpretation of texts, artistic creation and criticism, and philosophical and religious reflection. Part Five, Aftereffects, explores the Holocaust's impact on politics and ethics, education and religion, national identities and international relations, the prospects for genocide prevention, and the defense of human rights.
The Oxford Handbook of Peacebuilding, Statebuilding, and Peace Formation (Oxford Handbooks)
In addition to being a major area of research within International Relations, peacebuilding and statebuilding is a major policy area within the UN and other international and regional organizations. It is also a concern of international financial institutions, including the World Bank, and a significant factor in the foreign and security policies of many established and emerging democracies. Peacebuilding and statebuilding are among the main approaches for preventing, managing, and mitigating global insecurities; dealing with the humanitarian consequences of civil wars; and expanding democracy and neoliberal economic regimes. Peace formation is a relatively new concept, addressing how local actors work in parallel to international and national projects, and helps shape the legitimacy of peace processes and state reform. The Oxford Handbook of Peacebuilding, Statebuilding, and Peace Formation serves as an essential guide to this vast intellectual and policy landscape. It offers a systematic overview of conceptual foundations, political implications, and tensions at the global, regional, and local levels, as well as key policies, practices, examples, and discourses underlining all segments of peacebuilding and statebuilding praxis. Approaching peacebuilding from disciplinary perspectives across the social sciences, the Handbook is organized around four major thematic sections. Section one explores how peacebuilding, statebuilding, and peace formation is conceived by different disciplines and IR approaches, thus offering an overview of the conceptual bedrock of major theories and approaches. Section two situates these approaches among other major global issues, including globalization, civil society, terrorism, and technology to illustrate their global, regional, and local resonance. Section three looks at key themes in the field, including peace agreements, democratization, security reform, human rights, environment, and culture. Finally, section four looks at key features of everyday and civil society peace formation processes, both in theory and in practice.
The Oxford Handbook of Peaceful Change in International Relations (Oxford Handbooks)
The discipline of international relations offers much insight into why violent power transitions occur, yet there have been few substantive examinations of why and how peaceful changes happen in world politics. This work is the first comprehensive treatment of that subject. The Oxford Handbook of Peaceful Change in International Relations provides a thorough examination of research on the problem of change in the international arena and the reasons why change happens peacefully at times, and at others, violently. It contains over forty chapters, which examine the historical, theoretical, global, regional, and national foreign-policy dimensions of peaceful change. As the world enters a new round of power transition conflict, involving a rapidly rising China and a relatively declining United States, this Handbook provides a necessary resource for decisionmakers and scholars engaged in this vital area of research.
The Oxford Handbook of U.S. National Security (Oxford Handbooks)
National security is pervasive in government and society, but there is little scholarly attention devoted to understanding the context, institutions, and processes the U.S. government uses to promote the general welfare. The Oxford Handbook of U.S. National Security aims to fill this gap. Coming from academia and the national security community, its contributors analyze key institutions and processes that promote the peace and prosperity of the United States and, by extension, its allies and other partners. By examining contemporary challenges to U.S. national security, contributors consider ways to advance national interests. The United States is entering uncharted waters. The assumptions and verities of the Washington consensus and the early post-Cold War have broken down. After 15 years of war and the inability of two presidents to set a new long-term U.S. foreign policy approach in place, the uncertainties of the Trump administration symbolize the questioning of assumptions that is now going on as Americans work to re-define their place in the world. This handbook serves as a "how to" guide for students and practitioners to understand the key issues and roadblocks confronting those working to improve national security. The first section establishes the scope of national security highlighting the important debates to bridge the practitioner and scholarly approaches to national security. The second section outlines the major national security actors in the U.S. government, describes the legislative authorities and appropriations available to each institution, and considers the organizational essence of each actor to explain behavior during policy discussions. It also examines the tools of national security such as diplomacy, arms control, and economic statecraft. The third section focuses on underlying strategic approaches to national security addressing deterrence, nuclear and cyber issues, and multilateral approaches to foreign policy. The final section surveys the landscape of contemporary national security challenges. This is a critical resource for anyone trying to understand the complex mechanisms and institutions that govern U.S. national security.
The Oxford History of the First World War (The Oxford History of...)
Histories you can trust. The First World War, now a century ago, still shapes the world in which we live, and its legacy lives on, in poetry, in prose, in collective memory and political culture. By the time the war ended in 1918, millions lay dead. Three major empires lay shattered by defeat, those of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottomans. A fourth, Russia, was in the throes of a revolution that helped define the rest of the twentieth century. The Oxford History of the First World War brings together in one volume many of the most distinguished historians of the conflict, in an account that matches the scale of the events. From its causes to its consequences, from the Western Front to the Eastern, from the strategy of the politicians to the tactics of the generals, they chart the course of the war and assess its profound political and human consequences. Chapters on economic mobilization, the impact on women, the role of propaganda, and the rise of socialism establish the wider context of the fighting at sea and in the air, and which ranged on land from the trenches of Flanders to the mountains of the Balkans and the deserts of the Middle East.
Perspectives on Development: The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership
The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership Initiative, launched by the Barcelona Conference in 1995, is the most ambitious project to date directed at comprehensive prosperity and security in the Mediterranean region. Yet the assumptions on which it is based are untried and untested. This study seeks to analyse what they are and to draw some conclusions as to the potential of the Initiative for success by comparing it with other experiences of regional develoment.
Philosophers of War [2 volumes]: The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers [2 volumes]
This user-friendly reference systematically covers the entire intellectual history of strategy and war, in all cultures and all times.Each culture has had its Machiavelli, its Sun Tzu; its own Mohammed-like or Napoleonic figure. This encyclopedia ranges across the world to provide entries on every significant military and strategic thinker in human history as well as a number of military cultures, covering Chinese, Western, Indian, Islamic, and other cultures. Each entry supplies a brief biography, a synopsis of the writer's theories, their success or failure, and their impact on other thinkers and military practitioners. The unique coverage allows readers to cross cultural barriers and gain access to sources in languages as diverse as Arabic and German, and to note key similarities and contrasts. The relative importance and contribution of each individual to intellectual progress is noted, as is the greater significance of specific schools of thought and debates.
Preventing and Treating the Invisible Wounds of War: Combat Trauma, Moral Injury, and Psychological Health (Ethics, National Security, and the Rule of Law)
This volume provides several perspectives that help practitioners, advocates, and policymakers understand the impact of historical and recent wars on U.S. Military veterans. The chapters address newly recognized conditions, such as moral injury, military sexual trauma, and remote combat trauma as precursors to more serious diagnosable mental health disorders with the goal of addressing how these conditions can be identified and mitigated in future combat operations. The chapters also provide new insights on calculating the costs of wars in terms of dollars spent on treating mental health conditions, the intergenerational impact of combat trauma on families and future generations, and involvement in the criminal justice system of those who do not receive treatment due to discharge characterizations from military misconduct.
Proxy Wars: Suppressing Violence through Local Agents
The most common image of world politics involves states negotiating, cooperating, or sometimes fighting with one another; billiard balls in motion on a global pool table. Yet working through local proxies or agents, through what Eli Berman and David A. Lake call a strategy of "indirect control," has always been a central tool of foreign policy. Understanding how countries motivate local allies to act in sometimes costly ways, and when and how that strategy succeeds, is essential to effective foreign policy in today's world. In this splendid collection, Berman and Lake apply a variant of principal-agent theory in which the alignment of interests or objectives between a powerful state and a local proxy is central. Through analysis of nine detailed cases, Proxy Wars finds that: when principals use rewards and punishments tailored to the agent's domestic politics, proxies typically comply with their wishes; when the threat to the principal or the costs to the agent increase, the principal responds with higher-powered incentives and the proxy responds with greater effort; if interests diverge too much, the principal must either take direct action or admit that indirect control is unworkable. Covering events from Denmark under the Nazis to the Korean War to contemporary Afghanistan, and much in between, the chapters in Proxy Wars engage many disciplines and will suit classes taught in political science, economics, international relations, security studies, and much more.
Proxy Wars from a Global Perspective: Non-State Actors and Armed Conflicts
Proxy warfare is a growing international phenomenon. Although states have used proxies in armed conflicts for centuries, evolving regional and global security architecture is now forcing states to radically change the way contemporary conflicts are fought. Based on ten case studies, this reassesses exactly how these changing global and systemic factors are shaping the ways in which states use non-state actors as proxies in their armed conflicts. Examining the use of proxy warfare worldwide, focusing on the last decade's conflicts, this volume brings together contributions from scholars of international relations and global security studies in order to explore cases of armed conflict of particular regional and global significance. These include recent developments in the conflict in Israel and Palestine, the Central African Republic, Libya, Mali, Central Asia, Syria, Ukraine, Nagorno-Karabakh, Brazil and Yemen. By drawing on both theory and practise, it offers a re-evaluation of contemporary understanding of "outsourced warfare", with policy implications for how we understand and negotiate with states using proxy warfare in the future.
The PSI Handbook of Virtual Environments for Training and Education [3 volumes]: Developments for the Military and Beyond [3 volumes] (Technology, Psychology, and Health)
The increasingly complex environment of the 21st century demands unprecedented knowledge, skills and abilities for people from all walks of life. One powerful solution that blends the science of learning with the technological advances of computing is Virtual Environments. In the United States alone, the Department of Defense has invested billions of dollars over the past decade to make this field and its developments as effective as possible. This 3-volume work provides, for the first time, comprehensive coverage of the many different domains that must be integrated for Virtual Environments to fully provide effective training and education. The first volume is dedicated to a thorough understanding of learning theory, requirements definition and performance measurement, providing insight into the human-centric specifications the VE must satisfy to succeed. Volume II provides the latest information on VE component technologies, and Volume III offers discussion of an extensive collection of integrated systems presented as VE use-cases, and results of effectiveness evaluation studies. The text includes emerging directions of this evolving technology, from cognitive rehabilitation to the next generation of museum exhibitions. Finally, the handbook offers a glimpse into the future with this fascinating technology.This groundbreaking set will interest students, scholars and researchers in the fields of military science, technology, computer science, business, law enforcement, cognitive psychology, education and health. Topics addressed include guidance and interventions using VE as a teaching tool, what to look for in terms of human-centered systems and components, and current training uses in the Navy, Army, Air Force and Marines. Game-based and long distance training are explained, as are particular challenges such as the emergence of VE sickness. Chapters also highlight the combination of VE and cybernetics, robotics and artificial intelligence.
The Psychology of the Peacekeeper: Lessons from the Field (Psychological Dimensions to War and Peace)
In this remarkable volume, a multinational team of scientists catalogs the stressors and benefits for combat-trained soldiers deployed on missions where they are told to hold their fire and assume the role of peacekeeper. Theory and direct research with peacekeepers is incorporated. Missions covered include, but are not limited to, peacekeeping operations in Haiti, Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq, and Lebanon. The terminology of peacekeeping and military operations is listed. The stressors, threats, dangers, frustrations, and benefits of the peacekeeper role are described in dramatic detail, with additional attention to the Peacekeeper Stress Syndrome.With the goal of increasing peacekeeper health and well-being, which in turn increases the likelihood of establishing a stable peace, this volume also addresses interventions and preventative measures. The extent of psychological distress and disorders following peacekeeping operations is documented. Interventions are recommended for various phases of deployment, in order to minimize the likelihood of post-deployment psychological problems. Experts in social, industrial/organizational, health, clinical, and cross-cultural psychology contribute to a multi-dimensional perspective. Each chapter author reports psychological research with military personnel in peacekeeping operations.
Reading the Postwar Future: Textual Turning Points from 1944
This original collection explores a number of significant texts produced in 1944 that define that year as a textual turning point when overlapping and diverging visions of a new world emerged. The questions posed at that moment, about capitalism, race, empire, nation and cultural modernity gave rise to debates that defined the global politics of their era and continue to delineate our own. Highlighting the goals, agendas and priorities that emerged for artists, intellectuals and politicians in 1944, Reading the Postwar Future rethinks the intellectual history of the 20th century and the way 1944's texts shaped the contours of the postwar world. This is essential reading for any student or scholar of the intellectual, political, economic and cultural history of the postwar era.
The Regionalization of Warfare: The Falkland/Malvinas Islands, Lebanon, and the Iran-Iraq Conflict
Three wars have dominated world events in recent years: The conflict which erupted between the United Kingdom and Argentina over the Falkland/Malvinas Islands; the multinational conflict in Lebanon involving Irsaeli, Syrian, and FLO forces in Lebanon; and the savage struggles between ground and air units of the Iranian and Iraqi forces. The scale and intensity of these wars, their potential for global conflict, make them crucial for an understanding among citizens in general, and defense and political analysts in particular.The authors and contributors to this most unusual volume come to several common conclusions: professionalism is a crucial factor in military effectiveness, but not necessarily dependent on modes of recruitment; high technology is crucial, but only in relation to the quality and training of the personnel; public support is necessary to sustain military morale in democratic and authoritarian regimes alike. These are only some of the incisive findings registered and explored in The Regionalization of Warfare.The volume a'ssembles experts not only on these three major regional and interregional conflicts, but on current U.S. defense policies; Soviet strategic interests in Middle East and Persian Gulf conflicts; and a series of papers on lessons learned and unlearned as a result of these "small wars" of the early 1980s. For those interested in military history, global strategy, and regional rivalries, this -collection of finely written, sophisticated papers will prove to be of intense concern.
Remembering for the Future: 3 Volume Set: The Holocaust in an Age of Genocide
Focused on 'The Holocaust in an Age of Genocide', Remembering for the Future brings together the work of nearly 200 scholars from more than 30 countries and features cutting-edge scholarship across a range of disciplines, amounting to the most extensive and powerful reassessment of the Holocaust ever undertaken. In addition to its international scope, the project emphasizes that varied disciplinary perspectives are needed to analyze and to check the genocidal forces that have made the Twentieth century so deadly. Historians and ethicists, psychologists and literary scholars, political scientists and theologians, sociologists and philosophers - all of these, and more, bring their expertise to bear on the Holocaust and genocide. Their contributions show the new discoveries that are being made and the distinctive approaches that are being developed in the study of genocide, focusing both on archival and oral evidence, and on the religious and cultural representation of the Holocaust.
The Republic of Vietnam, 1955–1975: Vietnamese Perspectives on Nation Building
Through the voices of senior officials, teachers, soldiers, journalists, and artists, The Republic of Vietnam, 1955–1975, presents us with an interpretation of "South Vietnam" as a passionately imagined nation in the minds of ordinary Vietnamese, rather than merely as an expeditious political construct of the United States government.The moving and honest memoirs collected, translated, and edited here by Tuong Vu and Sean Fear describe the experiences of war, politics, and everyday life for people from many walks of life during the fraught years of Vietnam's Second Republic, leading up to and encompassing what Americans generally call the "Vietnam War." The voices gift the reader a sense of the authors' experiences in the Republic and their ideas about the nation during that time. The light and careful editing hand of Vu and Fear reveals that far from a Cold War proxy struggle, the conflict in Vietnam featured a true ideological divide between the communist North and the non-communist South.
Research Handbook on Civil–Military Relations (Elgar Handbooks in Political Science)
Bringing together leading international scholars, this comprehensive Research Handbook analyses key problems, subjects, regions, and countries in civil-military relations. Showcasing cutting-edge research developments, it illustrates the deeply complex nature of the field and examines important topics in need of renewed consideration.Arranged in five thematic sections, chapters explore the role of armed forces in politics and society, the missions and roles of militaries, and crucial issues of control, compliance and effectiveness. Contributors present theoretically informed and empirically applied research asking novel questions and examining cutting-edge solutions to ongoing problems in the field. They demonstrate the wide range of research methodologies and meta-theoretical traditions in civil-military relations, spanning structuralism, behavioralism, institutionalism, and constructivism. Ultimately, the Research Handbook is a timely insight into the contemporary role of militaries, for example in democratization and autocratization processes and deployment during natural disasters and pandemics.The Research Handbook on Civil–Military Relations will be an invaluable resource for students and scholars of military, security, and strategic studies, as well as comparative politics and military sociology. It will also be an important read for policymakers seeking to better understand the role of the military in society.
Research Handbook on the Arms Trade
This comprehensive Research Handbook examines the key drivers of the arms trade, mapping the main trends in Asia, Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Latin America. It also explores the principal defence markets internationally, including the US, China, India, Russia and the UK in greater detail. Across twenty-six chapters, international experts assess the central drivers of the arms trade, such as the insecurities of small states in an increasingly realist world of power politics, the continued presence of conflict, technological change and the presence of corruption. Analysing critical issues from the future of air and naval power and their implications for the trade to the impact of emerging technology and the prospects for arms control, the chapters raise a number of central issues as to the challenges and future direction of the arms trade. The Research Handbook concludes that defence spending and procurement have remained paramount and on a general upward trend since the Cold War, particularly in Asia and the Middle East. This Research Handbook will be a valuable resource for academics and students of international relations, security studies and political science. Its global approach will also be beneficial for arms policy analysts and defence professionals.
Rethinking American Grand Strategy
A wide-ranging rethinking of the many factors that comprise the making of American Grand Strategy. What is grand strategy? What does it aim to achieve? And what differentiates it from normal strategic thought--what, in other words, makes it "grand"? In answering these questions, most scholars have focused on diplomacy and warfare, so much so that "grand strategy" has become almost an equivalent of "military history." The traditional attention paid to military affairs is understandable, but in today's world it leaves out much else that could be considered political, and therefore strategic. It is in fact possible to consider, and even reach, a more capacious understanding of grand strategy, one that still includes the battlefield and the negotiating table while expanding beyond them. Just as contemporary world politics is driven by a wide range of non-military issues, the most thorough considerations of grand strategy must consider the bases of peace and security--including gender, race, the environment, and a wide range of cultural, social, political, and economic issues. Rethinking American Grand Strategy assembles a roster of leading historians to examine America's place in the world. Its innovative chapters re-examine familiar figures, such as John Quincy Adams, George Kennan, and Henry Kissinger, while also revealing the forgotten episodes and hidden voices of American grand strategy. They expand the scope of diplomatic and military history by placing the grand strategies of public health, race, gender, humanitarianism, and the law alongside military and diplomatic affairs to reveal hidden strategists as well as strategies.