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A History of GKN: Volume 2 The Growth of a Business, 1918–45
by Edgar JonesThis history of GKN (formerly Guest, Keen & Nettlefolds) shows the dramatic changes which occurred to the group in the 25 years following the end of the first world war. It describes the merger with the steelmakers, John Lysaght, the development by acquisition of its fastener interests and the extension of the business into Australia and India. With the rise of H.Seymour Berry, Lord Buckland and Sir David Llewellyn to the highest ranks of its management, a new strategy for growth was implemented: the takeover of major collieries in South Wales and associated sales and marketing companies. Undertaken in the harsh competitive twenties, the plan foundered on the slump. The thirties saw GKN divest itself of its coal and heavy steel interests to bring the focus back to light engineering in the Midlands. A return to sound profits was interrupted by the Second World War which caused disruption as the group was called upon to manufacture munitions and machinery demanded by the armed forces. Using internal company records, this business history reveals strategic policy decisions, demonstrates the sources of income and assesses the strengths of the management and contribution of the workforce.
A History of Global Capitalism: Feuding Elites and Imperial Expansion (Frontiers in Economic History)
by Sambit BhattacharyyaThe book sets out to explore the economic motivations of imperial expansion under capitalism. This undoubtedly is related to two fundamental research questions in economic sciences. First, what factors explain the divergence in living standards across countries under the capitalist economic system? Second, what ensures internal and external stability of the capitalist economic system? The book adopts a unified approach to address these questions. Using the standard growth model it shows that improvements in living standards are dependent on access to raw materials, labour, capital, technology, and perhaps most importantly 'economies of scale'. Empires ensure scale economy through guaranteed access to markets and raw materials. The stability of the system depends on growth and distribution and it is not possible to have one without the other. However, the quest for growth and imperial expansion implies that one empire invariably comes into conflict with another. This is perhaps the most unstable and potentially dangerous characteristic of the capitalist system. Using extensive historical accounts the book shows that this inherent tension can be best managed by acknowledging mutual spheres of influence within the international system along the lines of the 1815 Vienna Congress. This timely publication addresses not only students and scholars of economics, geography, political science, and history, but also general readers interested in a better understanding of economic development, international relations, and the history of global capitalism.
History of Greed: Financial Fraud from Tulip Mania to Bernie Madoff
by David E. SarnaPraise for HISTORY OF GREED "David Sarna is a visionary technologist. He is also a sophisticated investor and financier. He has written a readable, comprehensive, fascinating, and well-researched book that explores troublesome aspects of the financial system in a way only an experienced insider could." —Jay N. Goldberg, Senior Managing Director, Hudson Ventures "A comprehensive review of what has happened to us in our financial markets over and over and over and over again. It's an important history, written with wit and delivered with wisdom. Undoubtedly, History of Greed will become required reading for anyone serious about understanding the capital markets." —Frederick L. Gorsetman, Founder and Managing Member, Oxbridge Financial Group, LLC 400 years of financial fraud in the making From the earliest financial scams of the seventeenth century, through the headline-grabbing Wall Street scandals of our times, History of Greed provides a comprehensive history of financial fraud. In it, David E. Y. Sarna exposes the true and often riveting stories of how both naïve and sophisticated investors alike were fooled by unscrupulous entrepreneurs, lawyers, hedge fund managers, CPAs, Texas billionaires, political fundraisers, music managers, financial advisers, and even former Mossad agents. From the people behind the financial fraud and how they did it to why people continually fall prey to scam artists, Sarna outlines what actions you can take today to protect yourself from becoming the victim of tomorrow's "too good to be true" investment opportunity. History of Greed details how markets are manipulated, books are cooked, Ponzi schemes are hatched, and how the government only closes the barn door once the cows have all escaped.
History of Greed: Financial Fraud from Tulip Mania to Bernie Madoff
by David E. SarnaPraise for HISTORY OF GREED "David Sarna is a visionary technologist. He is also a sophisticated investor and financier. He has written a readable, comprehensive, fascinating, and well-researched book that explores troublesome aspects of the financial system in a way only an experienced insider could." —Jay N. Goldberg, Senior Managing Director, Hudson Ventures "A comprehensive review of what has happened to us in our financial markets over and over and over and over again. It's an important history, written with wit and delivered with wisdom. Undoubtedly, History of Greed will become required reading for anyone serious about understanding the capital markets." —Frederick L. Gorsetman, Founder and Managing Member, Oxbridge Financial Group, LLC 400 years of financial fraud in the making From the earliest financial scams of the seventeenth century, through the headline-grabbing Wall Street scandals of our times, History of Greed provides a comprehensive history of financial fraud. In it, David E. Y. Sarna exposes the true and often riveting stories of how both naïve and sophisticated investors alike were fooled by unscrupulous entrepreneurs, lawyers, hedge fund managers, CPAs, Texas billionaires, political fundraisers, music managers, financial advisers, and even former Mossad agents. From the people behind the financial fraud and how they did it to why people continually fall prey to scam artists, Sarna outlines what actions you can take today to protect yourself from becoming the victim of tomorrow's "too good to be true" investment opportunity. History of Greed details how markets are manipulated, books are cooked, Ponzi schemes are hatched, and how the government only closes the barn door once the cows have all escaped.
The History of Human Resource Development: Understanding the Unexplored Philosophies, Theories, and Methodologies
by Claretha Hughes Matthew W. GosneyThe history of human resource development embraces humankind's investment in one another's skills, knowledge, and abilities. As the field transitions into a more mature discipline, there is a need to understand the philosophies upon which certain theories and methodologies are based. Providing a historical narrative of HRD from the beginning of human history through modern times, this book reveals the consistent interaction between the philosophies of the time, theories, and methods of people management and how these philosophies impact what is known as HRD today. Drs. Gosney and Hughes offer a robust examination of HRD and provide a methodology for critical thinking to better understand the theories and assumptions of the field. They provide a model whereby scholars and practitioners can better understand and evaluate modern HRD through the context of HRD history.
A History of Human Rights Society in Singapore: 1965-2015 (Politics in Asia)
by Jiyoung SongTo celebrate Singapore’s fiftieth anniversary for its independence from Malaysia in 2015, 35 students, academics and activists came together to discuss and write about pioneering Singaporean human rights activists and their under-reported stories in Singapore. The city-state is known for its remarkable economic success while having strict laws on individual freedom in the name of national security, public order and racial harmony. Singapore’s tough stance on human rights, however, does not negate the long and persistent existence of a human rights society that is little known to the world until today. This volume, composed of nine distinctive chapters, records a history of human rights activists, their campaigns, main contentions with the government, survival strategies and other untold stories in Singapore’s first 50 years of state-building.
A History of Human Rights Society in Singapore: 1965-2015 (Politics in Asia)
by Jiyoung SongTo celebrate Singapore’s fiftieth anniversary for its independence from Malaysia in 2015, 35 students, academics and activists came together to discuss and write about pioneering Singaporean human rights activists and their under-reported stories in Singapore. The city-state is known for its remarkable economic success while having strict laws on individual freedom in the name of national security, public order and racial harmony. Singapore’s tough stance on human rights, however, does not negate the long and persistent existence of a human rights society that is little known to the world until today. This volume, composed of nine distinctive chapters, records a history of human rights activists, their campaigns, main contentions with the government, survival strategies and other untold stories in Singapore’s first 50 years of state-building.
History of Indigenous Pharmaceutical Companies in Colonial Calcutta (1855–1947)
by Malika BasuIn the context of life and civilization, the pharmaceutical industry is as old as human existence. Since time immemorial India had its own enriched indigenous tradition of medicine. The development of alchemy and its application for human welfare was also an important step in Indian scientific tradition. The present monograph is an innovative attempt to understand the history of the indigenous pharmaceutical companies in Calcutta during the colonial times. Here pharmaceutical companies have been viewed as an illuminating lens to understand the interconnectedness between Indian traditions of thought and Western science and subsequent development of pharmaceutical industry in colonial India. The entire gamut of discussion centres around the issues of medical education, medical services, public health, pharmaceutical profession and politico-economic contexts of the development of pharmaceutical industry in colonial India. Three indigenous pharmaceuticals namely – Butto Krishna Paul & Co., Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works Limited, and East India Pharmaceutical Works Limited have been studied. The study not only portrays the politico-economic background to the emergence of the pharmaceutical industry in colonial India but links it to the economic nationalism and the quest for self-sufficiency among Indian nationalists and entrepreneurs. The pharmaceutical industry in India can be symbolic of a cultural response to modern science which was to pave the subsequent trajectory of national scientific endeavours in India.Please note: Taylor & Francis does not sell or distribute the Hardback in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
History of Indigenous Pharmaceutical Companies in Colonial Calcutta (1855–1947)
by Malika BasuIn the context of life and civilization, the pharmaceutical industry is as old as human existence. Since time immemorial India had its own enriched indigenous tradition of medicine. The development of alchemy and its application for human welfare was also an important step in Indian scientific tradition. The present monograph is an innovative attempt to understand the history of the indigenous pharmaceutical companies in Calcutta during the colonial times. Here pharmaceutical companies have been viewed as an illuminating lens to understand the interconnectedness between Indian traditions of thought and Western science and subsequent development of pharmaceutical industry in colonial India. The entire gamut of discussion centres around the issues of medical education, medical services, public health, pharmaceutical profession and politico-economic contexts of the development of pharmaceutical industry in colonial India. Three indigenous pharmaceuticals namely – Butto Krishna Paul & Co., Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works Limited, and East India Pharmaceutical Works Limited have been studied. The study not only portrays the politico-economic background to the emergence of the pharmaceutical industry in colonial India but links it to the economic nationalism and the quest for self-sufficiency among Indian nationalists and entrepreneurs. The pharmaceutical industry in India can be symbolic of a cultural response to modern science which was to pave the subsequent trajectory of national scientific endeavours in India.Please note: Taylor & Francis does not sell or distribute the Hardback in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
History of Innovative Entrepreneurs in Japan
by Takeo KikkawaThis is the first Open Access book introducing more than 20 of Japan’s leading innovative entrepreneurs from the 17th century to the present. The author outlines the innovative business models created by entrepreneurs including SoftBank’s Masayoshi Son, Fast Retailing (Uniqlo)’s Yanai Tadashi, Honda’s Soichiro Honda, Sony’s Akio Morita, Panasonic’s Konosuke Matsushita, and Toyota’s Kiichiro Toyoda, as well as their predecessors including Takatoshi Mitsui of Mitsui Zaibatsu, Shibusawa Eiichi of Daiichi Bank. While introducing the innovators, the author also raises three broader questions: 1. Why did Japan industrialize earlier than any other country outside Europe and the United States? 2. Why was Japan able to realize unsurpassed economic growth between the 1910s and the 1980s? 3. Why has Japan’s economy stagnated for more than 30 years since the 1990s? Drawing upon analytical concepts including Schumpeter’s breakthrough innovation, Kirzner’s incremental innovation, and Christensen’s disruptive innovation, the author contends that Japan’s successes were based on unique and systematic breakthrough innovation and an accumulation of incremental innovation, while it later fell victim to a combination of breakthrough innovation from advanced countries and disruptive innovation by developing nations.
A History of Interest Rates (Wiley Finance #322)
by Sidney Homer Richard SyllaA History of Interest Rates presents a very readable account of interest rate trends and lending practices over four millennia of economic history. Despite the paucity of data prior to the Industrial Revolution, authors Homer and Sylla provide a highly detailed analysis of money markets and borrowing practices in major economies. Underlying the analysis is their assertion that "the free market long-term rates of interest for any industrial nation, properly charted, provide a sort of fever chart of the economic and political health of that nation." Given the enormous volatility of rates in the 20th century, this implies we're living in age of political and economic excesses that are reflected in massive interest rate swings. Gain more insight into this assertion by ordering a copy of this book today.
A History of Interest Rates (Wiley Finance #322)
by Sidney Homer Richard SyllaA History of Interest Rates presents a very readable account of interest rate trends and lending practices over four millennia of economic history. Despite the paucity of data prior to the Industrial Revolution, authors Homer and Sylla provide a highly detailed analysis of money markets and borrowing practices in major economies. Underlying the analysis is their assertion that "the free market long-term rates of interest for any industrial nation, properly charted, provide a sort of fever chart of the economic and political health of that nation." Given the enormous volatility of rates in the 20th century, this implies we're living in age of political and economic excesses that are reflected in massive interest rate swings. Gain more insight into this assertion by ordering a copy of this book today.
History of Interior Architecture: Furniture, Design, and Global Culture - with STUDIO
by Mark HinchmanIn today's globalized world, every aspect of our lives is affected by global interconnectedness from what we buy to what we eat to what we study – and the study of design history is no exception. Programs in art, architecture, and interior design are all facing the challenges of providing students with information from around the world. History of Interior Architecture: Furniture, Design, and Global Culture, Second Edition, (formerly titled History of Furniture: A Global View) covers the major historical movements in architecture, interior design, furniture, and the decorative arts from prehistoric periods through contemporary times, and it includes parts of the world that traditional history books ignore or underserve such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It presents, moreover, the achievements of Western designers, not in isolation from the rest of the globe, but in vibrant contact with it. For example, students will learn about the influence of Islamic design on Romanesque style and Thailand's interpretation of Art Nouveau. In short, this comprehensive book with a global perspective focuses on the evolution of interior design from ancient history through deconstruction with lens on societal issues, like politics, economics, gender, technology, ethics, and sociology, in addition to history and aesthetics. FEATURES:- Highlights the contributions of women- Considers interior architecture in conjunction with other disciplines, including urban design, landscape design, graphic design, and fashion NEW TO THIS EDITION:- Focus on the 20th and 21st centuries, while streamlining earlier historical chapters, in accordance with the current curriculum- Discusses user-focused design, sustainability, and universal design- First edition to include online ancillary package with STUDIO features and Instructor ResourcesSTUDIO Features Includes:- Self-assessment quizzes to test yourself on what you have just read- Visual and Vocabulary Flashcards of key terms and concepts covered in the book Instructor Resources- Instructor's Guide to help incorporate the text into your classroom- PowerPoint Slides for every chapter
A History of International Civil Aviation: From its Origins through Transformative Evolution
by Alan DobsonFor civil aviation to progress it has never been just about technology and business practices. To go from the rudiments of the early services that plied across short distances in Europe and America to what we experience today required most of all that politicians and policy-makers address the central problems of national sovereignty over air space and national ownership and control over airlines. Those problems have plagued the development of seamless and efficient air services for consumers in the international sphere. One would have thought that international airlines might have led the way towards a uniform globalized system given the nature of their enterprise, but that has definitely not been the case. Sovereignty and security issues have more often than not trumped commercial arguments for a more level playing field for international airlines. There has thus been an on-going tussle between sovereignty, state security and mercantilist practices on the one hand and the ambition for civil aviation to flourish on the other. As one early commentator put it:’ one is convinced that the sovereign state cannot be left without authority over what happens just above its territory, (but) … one shrinks from the idea that aerial navigation could be the object of narrow-minded restrictions.’ How those narrow-minded restrictions were gradually eroded, though still not eliminated, to enable civil aviation to flourish is at the heart of this work. This book will be of direct interest to students of aviation, modern history, international relations and transport. It is also of value to airline industry professionals and government transport departments.
A History of International Civil Aviation: From its Origins through Transformative Evolution
by Alan DobsonFor civil aviation to progress it has never been just about technology and business practices. To go from the rudiments of the early services that plied across short distances in Europe and America to what we experience today required most of all that politicians and policy-makers address the central problems of national sovereignty over air space and national ownership and control over airlines. Those problems have plagued the development of seamless and efficient air services for consumers in the international sphere. One would have thought that international airlines might have led the way towards a uniform globalized system given the nature of their enterprise, but that has definitely not been the case. Sovereignty and security issues have more often than not trumped commercial arguments for a more level playing field for international airlines. There has thus been an on-going tussle between sovereignty, state security and mercantilist practices on the one hand and the ambition for civil aviation to flourish on the other. As one early commentator put it:’ one is convinced that the sovereign state cannot be left without authority over what happens just above its territory, (but) … one shrinks from the idea that aerial navigation could be the object of narrow-minded restrictions.’ How those narrow-minded restrictions were gradually eroded, though still not eliminated, to enable civil aviation to flourish is at the heart of this work. This book will be of direct interest to students of aviation, modern history, international relations and transport. It is also of value to airline industry professionals and government transport departments.
A History of International Monetary Diplomacy, 1867 to the Present: The Rise of the Guardian State and Economic Sovereignty in a Globalizing World (Routledge Frontiers of Political Economy)
by Giulio M. GallarottiThis book is about how the rise of democracy has transformed economics over the past 150 years. As voting was expanded to the masses in the late 19th century, political leaders faced emergent pressures to deliver prosperity to their newly enfranchised populations. This led to the rise of the guardian state: a state whose prime directive was to protect economic growth and employment. Domestic economic goals now became sacrosanct, and if that meant a failure on the international stage to construct solutions to problems in monetary relations, so be it. The book traces the history of international monetary diplomacy during this long period to show how the guardian state has manifested itself, and how it has shaped the course of international monetary relations. Each of the most important international monetary conferences in history is scrutinized with respect to how nations sought to protect the prosperity within their national economies. The historical narratives give a bird’s-eye view into how domestic political priorities have intruded on and shaped economic relations among nations. The book clearly demonstrates the advantages of an interdisciplinary understanding of how politics shapes economics. It will be invaluable reading for scholars and students of international economics, politics and economic history.
A History of International Monetary Diplomacy, 1867 to the Present: The Rise of the Guardian State and Economic Sovereignty in a Globalizing World (Routledge Frontiers of Political Economy)
by Giulio M. GallarottiThis book is about how the rise of democracy has transformed economics over the past 150 years. As voting was expanded to the masses in the late 19th century, political leaders faced emergent pressures to deliver prosperity to their newly enfranchised populations. This led to the rise of the guardian state: a state whose prime directive was to protect economic growth and employment. Domestic economic goals now became sacrosanct, and if that meant a failure on the international stage to construct solutions to problems in monetary relations, so be it. The book traces the history of international monetary diplomacy during this long period to show how the guardian state has manifested itself, and how it has shaped the course of international monetary relations. Each of the most important international monetary conferences in history is scrutinized with respect to how nations sought to protect the prosperity within their national economies. The historical narratives give a bird’s-eye view into how domestic political priorities have intruded on and shaped economic relations among nations. The book clearly demonstrates the advantages of an interdisciplinary understanding of how politics shapes economics. It will be invaluable reading for scholars and students of international economics, politics and economic history.
A History of Italian Wine: Culture, Economics, and Environment in the Nineteenth through Twenty-First Centuries
by Manuel Vaquero Piñeiro Paolo Tedeschi Luciano MaffiThis book analyzes the evolution of Italian viticulture and winemaking from the 1860s to the new Millennium. During this period the Italian wine sector experienced a profound modernization, renovating itself and adapting its products to international trends, progressively building the current excellent reputation of Italian wine in the world market.Using unpublished sources and a vast bibliography, authors highlight the main factors favoring this evolution: public institutional support to viticulture; the birth and the growth of Italian wine entrepreneurship; the improvement in quality of the winemaking processes; the increasing relevance of viticulture and winemaking in Italian agricultural production and export; and the emergence of wine as a cultural product.
The History of Japanese Economic Development: Origins of Private Dynamism and Policy Competence
by Kenichi OhnoThis is an easy-to-read book that explains how and why Japan industrialized rapidly. It traces historical development from the feudal Edo period to high income and technology in the current period. Catch-up industrialization is analyzed from a broad perspective including social, economic and political aspects. Historical data, research and contesting arguments are amply supplied. Japan’s unique experience is contrasted with the practices of today’s developing countries. Negative aspects such as social ills, policy failures, military movements and war years are also covered. Nineteenth-century Japan already had a happy combination of strong entrepreneurship and relatively wise government, which was the result of Japan’s long evolutionary history. Measured contacts with high civilizations of China, India and the West allowed cumulative growth without being destroyed by them. Imported ideas and technology were absorbed with adjustments to fit the local context. The book grew out of a graduate course for government officials from developing countries. It offers a comprehensive look and new insights at Japan’s industrial path that are often missing in standard historical chronicles. Written in an accessible and lively form, the book engages scholars as well as novices with no prior knowledge of Japan.
The History of Japanese Economic Development: Origins of Private Dynamism and Policy Competence
by Kenichi OhnoThis is an easy-to-read book that explains how and why Japan industrialized rapidly. It traces historical development from the feudal Edo period to high income and technology in the current period. Catch-up industrialization is analyzed from a broad perspective including social, economic and political aspects. Historical data, research and contesting arguments are amply supplied. Japan’s unique experience is contrasted with the practices of today’s developing countries. Negative aspects such as social ills, policy failures, military movements and war years are also covered. Nineteenth-century Japan already had a happy combination of strong entrepreneurship and relatively wise government, which was the result of Japan’s long evolutionary history. Measured contacts with high civilizations of China, India and the West allowed cumulative growth without being destroyed by them. Imported ideas and technology were absorbed with adjustments to fit the local context. The book grew out of a graduate course for government officials from developing countries. It offers a comprehensive look and new insights at Japan’s industrial path that are often missing in standard historical chronicles. Written in an accessible and lively form, the book engages scholars as well as novices with no prior knowledge of Japan.
History of Japanese Economic Thought (Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies)
by Tessa Morris SuzukiEconomics, in the modern sense of the word, was introduced into Japan in the second half of the nineteenth century. However, Japanese thinkers had already developed, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a variety of interesting approaches to issues such as the causes of inflation, the value of trade, and the role of the state in economic activity. Tessa Morris-Suzuki provides the first comprehensive English language survey of the development of economic thought in Japan. She considers how the study of neo-classical and Keynesian economics was given new impetus by Japan's 'economic miracle' while Marxist thought, particularly well established in Japan, was developing along lines that are only now beginning to be recognized by the West. She concludes with an examination of the radical rethinking of fundamental economic theory currently occuring in Japan and outlines some of the exciting new approaches which are emerging from this 'shaking of the foundations.
History of Japanese Economic Thought (Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies)
by Tessa Morris SuzukiEconomics, in the modern sense of the word, was introduced into Japan in the second half of the nineteenth century. However, Japanese thinkers had already developed, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a variety of interesting approaches to issues such as the causes of inflation, the value of trade, and the role of the state in economic activity. Tessa Morris-Suzuki provides the first comprehensive English language survey of the development of economic thought in Japan. She considers how the study of neo-classical and Keynesian economics was given new impetus by Japan's 'economic miracle' while Marxist thought, particularly well established in Japan, was developing along lines that are only now beginning to be recognized by the West. She concludes with an examination of the radical rethinking of fundamental economic theory currently occuring in Japan and outlines some of the exciting new approaches which are emerging from this 'shaking of the foundations.
A History of Japan’s Government-Business Relationship: The Passenger Car Industry (Michigan Papers in Japanese Studies #20)
by Phyllis A. GentherDespite the economic and political importance of the U.S.-Japan relationship and the extensive attention paid to automotive trade, few American scholars or policy makers are familiar with the history of Japanese government-business relations, either generally or for specific industries such as passenger cars. This book hopefully helps in a small way to fill that gap in our knowledge and, thus, to help strengthen the foundation from which we make public policy decisions about bilateral trade. [ix]
The History of Labour Intermediation: Institutions and Finding Employment in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (International Studies in Social History #26)
by Sigrid Wadauer Thomas Buchner Alexander MejstrikSearching for a job has been an everyday affair in both modern and past societies, and employment a concern for both individuals and institutions. The case studies in this volume investigate job search and placement practices in European countries, Australia, and India in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The contributors explore how looking for work becomes a means by which participants (individuals, placement agents, trade unions, municipalities, administrations, state authorities, and schools) articulated specific interests, perspectives, and agendas. Taking an exploratory approach, the chapters illustrate different approaches to the history of employment and job searching, ranging from organizational and regulatory histories to the analysis of practices and autobiographical accounts. In the process, they uncover the interrelations of search practices and attempts to arrange placement services.
The History of Labour Management in Japan (Classics in the History and Development of Economics)
by Hiroshi Hazama trans Mari SakoAn era of economic globalisation and inward investment has seen much interest in Japanese labour management techniques. The first English edition of this 1964 classic of Japanese economics corrects the misunderstandings which often prevail in this debate, by providing the necessary historical context from the Meiji restoration to the second world war. Professor Hazama debunks the myth that Japanese-style management is inherited from her feudal past, showing the impact of businesses imported from the west after reunification in 1867-68 and how these were amalgamated with a range of Japanese traditions.