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Justice as Welfare: Equity and Solidarity
by Adam GeareyJustice as Welfare provides an egalitarian account of distributive justice by rethinking notions of welfare. It first considers possible forms of decentered welfare to promote communal and individual autonomy rather than the bureaucratic, centralized market-oriented control. Next, it uses theoretical resources to rethink the conventional notions of solidarity that support welfare. Drawing on recent work in continental philosophy, Justice as Welfare suggests that welfare requires a notion of social ontology. It provides both an account of the existential context of communal risk sharing and a framework to think about desire, value, and opportunity. Noting present political and economic realities, it suggests that international strategies to control 'flight capital' are necessary to create and maintain egalitarian welfare. Justice as Welfare aims to present a convincing theoretical account of welfare as social justice and to show how this requires the assertion of democratic control over economic and social reproduction at both national and international levels. This philosophically informed argument about egalitarian justice will appeal to anyone researching issues of social welfare, political theory, and applied political philosophy.
Justice at Nuremberg: Leo Alexander and the Nazi Doctors' Trial (St Antony's Series)
by U. SchmidtThis book traces the history of the Nuremberg Doctors' Trial of 1946-47, through the eyes of the Austrian émigré psychiatrist Leo Alexander, whose investigations helped the US prosecution. Schmidt provides a detailed insight into the origins of human rights in medical science and into the changing role of international law, ethics and politics.
Justice by Means of Democracy
by Danielle AllenFrom leading thinker Danielle Allen, a bold and urgent articulation of a new political philosophy: power-sharing liberalism. At a time of great social and political turmoil, when many residents of the leading democracies question the ability of their governments to deal fairly and competently with serious public issues, and when power seems more and more to rest with the wealthy few, this book reconsiders the very foundations of democracy and justice. Scholar and writer Danielle Allen argues that the surest path to a just society in which all are given the support necessary to flourish is the protection of political equality; that justice is best achieved by means of democracy; and that the social ideals and organizational design principles that flow from recognizing political equality and democracy as fundamental to human well-being provide an alternative framework not only for justice but also for political economy. Allen identifies this paradigm-changing new framework as “power-sharing liberalism.” Liberalism more broadly is the philosophical commitment to a government grounded in rights that both protect people in their private lives and empower them to help govern public life. Power-sharing liberalism offers an innovative reconstruction of liberalism based on the principle of full inclusion and non-domination—in which no group has a monopoly on power—in politics, economy, and society. By showing how we all might fully share power and responsibility across all three sectors, Allen advances a culture of civic engagement and empowerment, revealing the universal benefits of an effective government in which all participate on equal terms.
Justice by Means of Democracy
by Danielle AllenFrom leading thinker Danielle Allen, a bold and urgent articulation of a new political philosophy: power-sharing liberalism. At a time of great social and political turmoil, when many residents of the leading democracies question the ability of their governments to deal fairly and competently with serious public issues, and when power seems more and more to rest with the wealthy few, this book reconsiders the very foundations of democracy and justice. Scholar and writer Danielle Allen argues that the surest path to a just society in which all are given the support necessary to flourish is the protection of political equality; that justice is best achieved by means of democracy; and that the social ideals and organizational design principles that flow from recognizing political equality and democracy as fundamental to human well-being provide an alternative framework not only for justice but also for political economy. Allen identifies this paradigm-changing new framework as “power-sharing liberalism.” Liberalism more broadly is the philosophical commitment to a government grounded in rights that both protect people in their private lives and empower them to help govern public life. Power-sharing liberalism offers an innovative reconstruction of liberalism based on the principle of full inclusion and non-domination—in which no group has a monopoly on power—in politics, economy, and society. By showing how we all might fully share power and responsibility across all three sectors, Allen advances a culture of civic engagement and empowerment, revealing the universal benefits of an effective government in which all participate on equal terms.
Justice, Care, and Value: A Values-Driven Theory of Care Ethics (Routledge Innovations in Political Theory)
by Thomas RandallIn Justice, Care, and Value Thomas Randall argues for the radical potential of care ethics as a distinct and preferable theory of distributive justice. Advancing the feminist literature, this book defends a vision of society that can best enable caring relations to flourish. Specifically, Randall proposes a values-driven theory of care ethics that derives normative criteria for evaluating the moral worth of caring relations and their surrounding institutions via a classification of the values of care. They argue that such a theory gives us unique and meaningful solutions to contemporary questions of distributive justice across personal, political, global, and intergenerational domains. In doing so, the book makes significant strides to engage care ethics with the broader moral and political philosophy literature. Topical and interdisciplinary, Randall demonstrates that care ethics has the conceptual resources to ground distributive theories of socialism, territorial and natural resource rights, obligations to future generations, and historic redress. The book will be of great interest to academics, researchers, and students of feminist philosophy, but also of liberalism, political economy, and theories of global and intergenerational justice.
Justice, Care, and Value: A Values-Driven Theory of Care Ethics (Routledge Innovations in Political Theory)
by Thomas RandallIn Justice, Care, and Value Thomas Randall argues for the radical potential of care ethics as a distinct and preferable theory of distributive justice. Advancing the feminist literature, this book defends a vision of society that can best enable caring relations to flourish. Specifically, Randall proposes a values-driven theory of care ethics that derives normative criteria for evaluating the moral worth of caring relations and their surrounding institutions via a classification of the values of care. They argue that such a theory gives us unique and meaningful solutions to contemporary questions of distributive justice across personal, political, global, and intergenerational domains. In doing so, the book makes significant strides to engage care ethics with the broader moral and political philosophy literature. Topical and interdisciplinary, Randall demonstrates that care ethics has the conceptual resources to ground distributive theories of socialism, territorial and natural resource rights, obligations to future generations, and historic redress. The book will be of great interest to academics, researchers, and students of feminist philosophy, but also of liberalism, political economy, and theories of global and intergenerational justice.
Justice, Community and Globalization: Groundwork to a Communal-Cosmopolitanism
by Joshua AndersonThis book takes up the tension between globalization and community in order to articulate a new theory of global justice. Although the process of globalization is not new, its current manifestation and consequences are. At the same time, there is a growing recognition of the importance of community, identity and belonging. These two facts have generally been understood to be fundamentally in tension, both theoretically and descriptively. This book seeks to resolve this tension, and then draw out the implications for a theory of global justice and an understanding of the value and purpose of community. Importantly, the book argues, not only does an acceptance of the significance of the fact of globalization and the importance of community call for cosmopolitan duties and obligations, but it also calls into question the legitimacy and justification of the traditional nation-state. Aimed primarily at scholars working on issues related to political philosophy, globalization and global justice, the book will appeal to readers in law, politics, philosophy, and sociology.
Justice, Community and Globalization: Groundwork to a Communal-Cosmopolitanism
by Joshua AndersonThis book takes up the tension between globalization and community in order to articulate a new theory of global justice. Although the process of globalization is not new, its current manifestation and consequences are. At the same time, there is a growing recognition of the importance of community, identity and belonging. These two facts have generally been understood to be fundamentally in tension, both theoretically and descriptively. This book seeks to resolve this tension, and then draw out the implications for a theory of global justice and an understanding of the value and purpose of community. Importantly, the book argues, not only does an acceptance of the significance of the fact of globalization and the importance of community call for cosmopolitan duties and obligations, but it also calls into question the legitimacy and justification of the traditional nation-state. Aimed primarily at scholars working on issues related to political philosophy, globalization and global justice, the book will appeal to readers in law, politics, philosophy, and sociology.
Justice Deferred: Race and the Supreme Court
by Orville Vernon Burton Armand DerfnerIn the first comprehensive accounting of the U.S. Supreme Court’s race-related jurisprudence, a distinguished historian and renowned civil rights lawyer scrutinize a legacy too often blighted by racial injustice. The Supreme Court is usually seen as protector of our liberties: it ended segregation, was a guarantor of fair trials, and safeguarded free speech and the vote. But this narrative derives mostly from a short period, from the 1930s to the early 1970s. Before then, the Court spent a century largely ignoring or suppressing basic rights, while the fifty years since 1970 have witnessed a mostly accelerating retreat from racial justice. From the Cherokee Trail of Tears to Brown v. Board of Education to the dismantling of the Voting Rights Act, historian Orville Vernon Burton and civil rights lawyer Armand Derfner shine a powerful light on the Court’s race record—a legacy at times uplifting, but more often distressing and sometimes disgraceful. For nearly a century, the Court ensured that the nineteenth-century Reconstruction amendments would not truly free and enfranchise African Americans. And the twenty-first century has seen a steady erosion of commitments to enforcing hard-won rights. Justice Deferred is the first book that comprehensively charts the Court’s race jurisprudence. Addressing nearly two hundred cases involving America’s racial minorities, the authors probe the parties involved, the justices’ reasoning, and the impact of individual rulings. We learn of heroes such as Thurgood Marshall; villains, including Roger Taney; and enigmas like Oliver Wendell Holmes and Hugo Black. Much of the fragility of civil rights in America is due to the Supreme Court, but as this sweeping history also reminds us, the justices still have the power to make good on the country’s promise of equal rights for all.
Justice, Democracy and Reasonable Agreement
by C. FarrellyFarrelly argues against the principled paradigm of ideal theory and champions instead a virtue-oriented theory of justice entitled 'civic liberalism'. He critically assesses the main contemporary theories of justice and tackles a number of applied topics, ranging from constitutional design and free speech to welfare reform and economic incentives.
Justice for Some: Law and the Question of Palestine
by Noura ErakatJustice in the Question of Palestine is often framed as a question of law. Yet none of the Israel-Palestinian conflict's most vexing challenges have been resolved by judicial intervention. Occupation law has failed to stem Israel's settlement enterprise. Laws of war have permitted killing and destruction during Israel's military offensives in the Gaza Strip. The Oslo Accord's two-state solution is now dead letter. Justice for Some offers a new approach to understanding the Palestinian struggle for freedom, told through the power and control of international law. Focusing on key junctures—from the Balfour Declaration in 1917 to present-day wars in Gaza—Noura Erakat shows how the strategic deployment of law has shaped current conditions. Over the past century, the law has done more to advance Israel's interests than the Palestinians'. But, Erakat argues, this outcome was never inevitable. Law is politics, and its meaning and application depend on the political intervention of states and people alike. Within the law, change is possible. International law can serve the cause of freedom when it is mobilized in support of a political movement. Presenting the promise and risk of international law, Justice for Some calls for renewed action and attention to the Question of Palestine.
Justice for the Damned: A Medieval Mystery (Medieval Mystery #4)
by Ben CheethamMEDIEVAL MYSTERY: On a remote East Anglian coast stands Tyndal Priory, home to a rare monastic order where men and women live and work together in close proximity. Twenty-year-old Eleanor of Wynethorpe has been appointed prioress by Henry III over the elected choice of the priory itself. Young and inexperienced, Eleanor will face a grave struggle – in a place dedicated to love and peace, she will find little of either. JUSTICE FOR THE DAMNED: May 1272: Recovering from a near-fatal winter fever, Eleanor visits her aunt at Amesbury Priory, who asks her to investigate a ghost people claim is haunting Amesbury. When a local man is found beheaded, Eleanor realizes she's dealing with a human killer, not an otherworldly spirit and strives to unravel the truth from the rumours, lies and foiled passions of the townsfolk and the nuns and monks of the priory alike. And strive she must, for Death's scythe is still sharp and its harvest is far from over.
Justice Hall (Mary Russell & Sherlock Holmes #5)
by Laurie R. KingOnly hours after Holmes and Russell return from solving one riddle on the moor, another knocks on their front door . . . literally.It‘s a mystery that begins during the Great War, when Gabriel Hughenfort died amidst scandalous rumours that have haunted the family ever since. But it‘s not until Holmes and Russell arrive at Justice Hall, a home of unearthly perfection set in a garden modeled on Paradise, that they fully understand the irony echoed in the family motto, Justitia fortitudo mea est: ‘Righteousness is my strength‘.A trail of ominous clues leads Holmes and Russell from an English hamlet to fashionable Paris to the wild prairie of the New World. But as the moment of reckoning approaches, will justice be done . . . or have they been lured straight into an elusive killer‘s perfectly baited trap?
Justice in Climate Policy: Distributing Climate Costs Fairly (Research for Policy)
by Mark Bovens Victor Toom Annick de Vries Gijsbert Werner Elsenoor Wijlhuizen Suzanne HulscherThis open access book is looking into ways to achieve just climate policy within a country. The authors of this monograph share a unique, timely and original vision: continuous support for climate policy is more likely to emerge when citizens find that the distribution of the bill for climate costs is fair. But what is a fair distribution of climate costs? This is an important question because financial costs of mitigation (reducing greenhouse gases), adaptation (adapting to climate change) and damage (compensating or compensating after weather extremes) increase significantly in the coming decades. Drawing on philosophy and ethics, the authors propose ten principles for achieving just distributions of domestic climate costs. Examples of such principles are individual responsibility, the polluter pays, greatest utility and capacity to pay. Yet what a fair distribution is, depends on, for example, political preferences and the policy issue at hand. Empirical research on designing climate policies, however, shows that distributive principles are not part of the political, policy, and public discussions. The authors therefore argue that explicit attention to principles of just distribution at the start of a policy process contributes to support for climate policy. This book provides tools to professionals and students to achieve justice in climate policy.
Justice in Islam: The Quest for the Righteous Community From Abu Dharr to Muhammad Ali
by Raymond William BakerIslam is the fastest growing of the world's major religions. Yet the pervasive hostility to Islam in the West makes understanding its expanding global reach virtually impossible. Islam is all too often seen through a lens that focuses on the small minority of violent extremists rather than the overwhelming majority of Muslims who make up to the moderate mainstream. It is the centrist mind and heart of Islam that captures new adherents in such impressive numbers. For centuries, Abu Dharr al Ghifari, the seventh-century companion of the Prophet Muhammad, has provided a human face for Islamic justice as the core value of the faith. The influence of Abu Dharr has sometimes faded. Extremism may challenge the moderate and tolerant heart of the Islam of the Qur'an that Abu Dharr represents. Invariably, however, Islamic intellectuals have stepped forward to restore balance and moderation. Our time is such a period of renewal and the sweeping awakening of midstream Islam. In this study of justice in Islam, Raymond Baker focuses on the work of major intellectuals who have contributed to this Islamic Awakening. They include: the Egyptians Hassan al Banna, Sayyid Qutb, and Shaikh Muhammad al Ghazalli; the Turkish scholar Sa'id Nursi; the Lebanese Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Fadlallah; the Iraqi Grand Ayatollah Baqir al Sadra; the Iranian radical intellectual Ali Sheriati; and the American athlete and Muslim convert Muhammad Ali. Baker argues that appreciation for the work of these preeminent figures is indispensable to understanding how an awakened Islam with justice at its core has become a global phenomenon.
Justice in Islam: The Quest for the Righteous Community From Abu Dharr to Muhammad Ali
by Raymond William BakerIslam is the fastest growing of the world's major religions. Yet the pervasive hostility to Islam in the West makes understanding its expanding global reach virtually impossible. Islam is all too often seen through a lens that focuses on the small minority of violent extremists rather than the overwhelming majority of Muslims who make up to the moderate mainstream. It is the centrist mind and heart of Islam that captures new adherents in such impressive numbers. For centuries, Abu Dharr al Ghifari, the seventh-century companion of the Prophet Muhammad, has provided a human face for Islamic justice as the core value of the faith. The influence of Abu Dharr has sometimes faded. Extremism may challenge the moderate and tolerant heart of the Islam of the Qur'an that Abu Dharr represents. Invariably, however, Islamic intellectuals have stepped forward to restore balance and moderation. Our time is such a period of renewal and the sweeping awakening of midstream Islam. In this study of justice in Islam, Raymond Baker focuses on the work of major intellectuals who have contributed to this Islamic Awakening. They include: the Egyptians Hassan al Banna, Sayyid Qutb, and Shaikh Muhammad al Ghazalli; the Turkish scholar Sa'id Nursi; the Lebanese Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Fadlallah; the Iraqi Grand Ayatollah Baqir al Sadra; the Iranian radical intellectual Ali Sheriati; and the American athlete and Muslim convert Muhammad Ali. Baker argues that appreciation for the work of these preeminent figures is indispensable to understanding how an awakened Islam with justice at its core has become a global phenomenon.
Justice in Lüritz: Experiencing Socialist Law in East Germany
by Inga MarkovitsAs a child, Inga Markovits dreamt of stealing and reading every letter contained in a mailbox at a busy intersection of her town in order to learn what life is all about. When, decades later, working as a legal historian, she tracked down the almost complete archive of a former East German trial court, she knew that she had finally found her mailbox. Combining her work in this extraordinary archive with interviews of former plaintiffs and defendants, judges and prosecutors, government and party functionaries, and Stasi collaborators, all in the little town she calls "Lüritz," Markovits has written a remarkable grassroots history of a legal system that set out with the utopian hopes of a few and ended in the anger and disappointment of the many. This is a story of ordinary men and women who experienced Socialist law firsthand--people who applied and used the law, trusted and resented it, manipulated and broke it, and feared and opposed it, but who all dealt with it in ways that help us understand what it meant to be a citizen in a twentieth-century Socialist state, what "Socialist justice" aimed to do, and how, in the end, it failed. Brimming with human stories of obedience and resistance, endurance and cunning, and cruelty and grief, Justice in Lüritz is ultimately a book about much more than the law, or Socialism, or East Germany.
Justice in Lüritz: Experiencing Socialist Law in East Germany
by Inga MarkovitsAs a child, Inga Markovits dreamt of stealing and reading every letter contained in a mailbox at a busy intersection of her town in order to learn what life is all about. When, decades later, working as a legal historian, she tracked down the almost complete archive of a former East German trial court, she knew that she had finally found her mailbox. Combining her work in this extraordinary archive with interviews of former plaintiffs and defendants, judges and prosecutors, government and party functionaries, and Stasi collaborators, all in the little town she calls "Lüritz," Markovits has written a remarkable grassroots history of a legal system that set out with the utopian hopes of a few and ended in the anger and disappointment of the many. This is a story of ordinary men and women who experienced Socialist law firsthand--people who applied and used the law, trusted and resented it, manipulated and broke it, and feared and opposed it, but who all dealt with it in ways that help us understand what it meant to be a citizen in a twentieth-century Socialist state, what "Socialist justice" aimed to do, and how, in the end, it failed. Brimming with human stories of obedience and resistance, endurance and cunning, and cruelty and grief, Justice in Lüritz is ultimately a book about much more than the law, or Socialism, or East Germany.
Justice Interrupted: The Struggle For Constitutional Government In The Middle East
by Elizabeth F. ThompsonThe Arab Spring uprising of 2011 is portrayed as a dawn of democracy in the region. But the revolutionaries were—and saw themselves as—heirs to a centuries-long struggle for just government and the rule of law. In Justice Interrupted we see the complex lineage of political idealism, reform, and violence that informs today’s Middle East.
Justice Interrupted: The Struggle For Constitutional Government In The Middle East
by Elizabeth F. ThompsonThe Arab Spring uprising of 2011 is portrayed as a dawn of democracy in the region. But the revolutionaries were—and saw themselves as—heirs to a centuries-long struggle for just government and the rule of law. In Justice Interrupted we see the complex lineage of political idealism, reform, and violence that informs today’s Middle East.
Justice Is an Option: A Democratic Theory of Finance for the Twenty-First Century (Chicago Studies in Practices of Meaning)
by Robert MeisterMore than ten years after the worst crisis since the Great Depression, the financial sector is thriving. But something is deeply wrong. Taxpayers bore the burden of bailing out “too big to fail” banks, but got nothing in return. Inequality has soared, and a populist backlash against elites has shaken the foundations of our political order. Meanwhile, financial capitalism seems more entrenched than ever. What is the left to do? Justice Is an Option uses those problems—and the framework of finance that created them—to reimagine historical justice. Robert Meister returns to the spirit of Marx to diagnose our current age of finance. Instead of closing our eyes to the political and economic realities of our era, we need to grapple with them head-on. Meister does just that, asking whether the very tools of finance that have created our vastly unequal world could instead be made to serve justice and equality. Meister here formulates nothing less than a democratic financial theory for the twenty-first century—one that is equally conversant in political philosophy, Marxism, and contemporary politics. Justice Is an Option is a radical, invigorating first page of a new—and sorely needed—leftist playbook.
Justice Is an Option: A Democratic Theory of Finance for the Twenty-First Century (Chicago Studies in Practices of Meaning)
by Robert MeisterMore than ten years after the worst crisis since the Great Depression, the financial sector is thriving. But something is deeply wrong. Taxpayers bore the burden of bailing out “too big to fail” banks, but got nothing in return. Inequality has soared, and a populist backlash against elites has shaken the foundations of our political order. Meanwhile, financial capitalism seems more entrenched than ever. What is the left to do? Justice Is an Option uses those problems—and the framework of finance that created them—to reimagine historical justice. Robert Meister returns to the spirit of Marx to diagnose our current age of finance. Instead of closing our eyes to the political and economic realities of our era, we need to grapple with them head-on. Meister does just that, asking whether the very tools of finance that have created our vastly unequal world could instead be made to serve justice and equality. Meister here formulates nothing less than a democratic financial theory for the twenty-first century—one that is equally conversant in political philosophy, Marxism, and contemporary politics. Justice Is an Option is a radical, invigorating first page of a new—and sorely needed—leftist playbook.
Justice, Mercy, and Caprice: Clemency and the Death Penalty in Ireland (Clarendon Studies in Criminology)
by Ian O'DonnellJustice, Mercy, and Caprice is a work of criminal justice history that speaks to the gradual emergence of a more humane Irish state. It is a close examination of the decision to grant clemency to men and women sentenced to death between the end of the civil war in 1923 and the abolition of capital punishment in 1990. Frequently, the decision to deflect the law from its course was an attempt to introduce a measure of justice to a system where the mandatory death sentence for murder caused predictable unfairness and undue harshness. In some instances the decision to spare a life sprang from merciful motivations. In others it was capricious, depending on factors that should have had no place in the government's decision-making calculus. The custodial careers of those whose lives were spared repay scrutiny. Women tended to serve relatively short periods in prison but were often transferred to a religious institution where their confinement continued, occasionally for life. Men, by contrast, served longer in prison but were discharged directly to the community. Political offenders were either executed hastily or, when the threat of capital punishment had passed, incarcerated for extravagant periods. This book addresses issues that are of continuing relevance for countries that employ capital punishment. It will appeal to scholars with an interest in criminal justice history, executive discretion, and death penalty studies, as well as being a useful resource for students of penology.
Justice, Mercy, and Caprice: Clemency and the Death Penalty in Ireland (Clarendon Studies in Criminology)
by Ian O'DonnellJustice, Mercy, and Caprice is a work of criminal justice history that speaks to the gradual emergence of a more humane Irish state. It is a close examination of the decision to grant clemency to men and women sentenced to death between the end of the civil war in 1923 and the abolition of capital punishment in 1990. Frequently, the decision to deflect the law from its course was an attempt to introduce a measure of justice to a system where the mandatory death sentence for murder caused predictable unfairness and undue harshness. In some instances the decision to spare a life sprang from merciful motivations. In others it was capricious, depending on factors that should have had no place in the government's decision-making calculus. The custodial careers of those whose lives were spared repay scrutiny. Women tended to serve relatively short periods in prison but were often transferred to a religious institution where their confinement continued, occasionally for life. Men, by contrast, served longer in prison but were discharged directly to the community. Political offenders were either executed hastily or, when the threat of capital punishment had passed, incarcerated for extravagant periods. This book addresses issues that are of continuing relevance for countries that employ capital punishment. It will appeal to scholars with an interest in criminal justice history, executive discretion, and death penalty studies, as well as being a useful resource for students of penology.
The Justice of Constantine: Law, Communication, and Control (Law And Society In The Ancient World)
by John DillonAs the first Christian emperor of Rome, Constantine the Great has long interested those studying the establishment of Christianity. But Constantine is also notable for his ability to control a sprawling empire and effect major changes. The Justice of Constantineexamines Constantine's judicial and administrative legislation and his efforts to maintain control over the imperial bureaucracy, to guarantee the working of Roman justice, and to keep the will of his subjects throughout the Roman Empire. John Dillon first analyzes the record of Constantine's legislation and its relationship to prior legislation. His initial chapters also serve as an introduction to Roman law and administration in later antiquity. Dillon then considers Constantine's public edicts and internal communications about access to law, trials and procedure, corruption, and punishment for administrative abuses. How imperial officials relied on correspondence with Constantine to resolve legal questions is also considered. A study of Constantine's expedited appellate system, to ensure provincial justice, concludes the book. Constantine's constitutions reveal much about the Theodosian Code and the laws included in it. Constantine consistently seeks direct sources of reliable information in order to enforce his will. In official correspondence, meanwhile, Constantine strives to maintain control over his officials through punishment; trusted agents; and the cultivation of accountability, rivalry, and suspicion among them.