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Perspectives on Drought and Famine in Nigeria (Routledge Revivals)
by G. Jan Van ApeldoornOriginally published in 1981, this book provided the first concise and integrated account of the Nigerian crisis and uncovered the basic cause of the increasing vulnerability of the Nigerian rural poor during the 1970s to the effects of drought, in order to show the lessons of the crisis and how they could be translated into medium-term action. The author argued that an analysis of the causes and impact of the drought and famine disaster of the seventies could offer useful clues to the policy orientations necessary to avert a protracted food crisis in the region
Perspectives on Drought and Famine in Nigeria (Routledge Revivals)
by G. Jan Van ApeldoornOriginally published in 1981, this book provided the first concise and integrated account of the Nigerian crisis and uncovered the basic cause of the increasing vulnerability of the Nigerian rural poor during the 1970s to the effects of drought, in order to show the lessons of the crisis and how they could be translated into medium-term action. The author argued that an analysis of the causes and impact of the drought and famine disaster of the seventies could offer useful clues to the policy orientations necessary to avert a protracted food crisis in the region
Perspectives on Economic Development and Policy in India: In Honour of Suresh D. Tendulkar (India Studies in Business and Economics)
by K. L. Krishna Vishwanath Pandit K. Sundaram Pami DuaThe book pays tribute to the celebrated economist Professor Suresh Tendulkar’s contribution and scholarship to economics, economic-policy making, and economic reforms in India. Professor Tendulkar served on numerous panels and commissions set up to reform diverse aspects of India’s economy. To name a few, he served as the Chairperson of the Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council, Chairman of the National Commission of Statistics, National Sample Survey Organisation, Committee on National Accounts, and as a member in the Fifth Pay Commission, the Disinvestment Commission (1996). He is credited with devising the new method to estimate poverty in India which resulted in India’s poverty estimates being scaled up. This book primarily focuses on Professor Tendulkar’s contributions on economic planning in India, the political economy of economic reforms, and his important conceptual and policy-relevant work on poverty measurement. The three sub-themes of the book – Economic Reforms and Policy Formulation, Poverty and Inequality, and Development and Trade – are indicative of his specific research interests, namely poverty and well-being, and India and the world economy. It covers both micro and macro aspects relevant to the Indian economy. The econometric techniques utilized encompass state-of-the-art microeconometric as well as macroeconometric models. The book contains contributions from eminent economists associated with Professor Tendulkar, and is useful for readers from the undergraduate through the Ph.D. level as well as researchers and practitioners of economics.
Perspectives on Economics and Management: Essays in Honour of Anindya Sen
by Partha RayThe world of economics and management is being reshaped in more ways than one including rapid advancements in technology and business practices. This book weaves together a diverse set of issues such as consumption patterns, wealth disparities and the management, behaviour and financial health of businesses and consumers to analyse the effectiveness of economic and business strategies. Rapid technological advancements along with the need for cost-effectiveness and convenience are making service providers embrace technology as a partner rather than a tool in their economic journey. Relatedly, traditional management philosophy is coming under a scanner, with an increasing emphasis on holistic development of the organization, rather than a top-down approach, as has been the case in the past. Understanding major developments in economic and financial policymaking has perennially been a key concern of public policy, shaped by recent global and related developments, this has necessitated a relook at these issues, couched in a cross-cutting perspective. Viewed from this standpoint, the present volume, written to honour the rich academic work of the eminent economist Professor Anindya Sen intersects this triad of economics, finance and public policy that are integral to policy thinking and its formulation. The smorgasbord of research ideas, involving both theoretical analysis and empirical evidence, presented in this volume, provides useful perspectives on the drivers that are continually reshaping the dynamism in the world around us and, in the process, integrates a multidisciplinary perspective of focusing on several pertinent policy challenges.This book will be useful to researchers and students of economics, finance and public policy, economic theorists, microeconomics, and even to those with a broader canvass such as researchers in macroeconomics, international economics, business, management and marketing.
Perspectives on Economics and Management: Essays in Honour of Anindya Sen
The world of economics and management is being reshaped in more ways than one including rapid advancements in technology and business practices. This book weaves together a diverse set of issues such as consumption patterns, wealth disparities and the management, behaviour and financial health of businesses and consumers to analyse the effectiveness of economic and business strategies. Rapid technological advancements along with the need for cost-effectiveness and convenience are making service providers embrace technology as a partner rather than a tool in their economic journey. Relatedly, traditional management philosophy is coming under a scanner, with an increasing emphasis on holistic development of the organization, rather than a top-down approach, as has been the case in the past. Understanding major developments in economic and financial policymaking has perennially been a key concern of public policy, shaped by recent global and related developments, this has necessitated a relook at these issues, couched in a cross-cutting perspective. Viewed from this standpoint, the present volume, written to honour the rich academic work of the eminent economist Professor Anindya Sen intersects this triad of economics, finance and public policy that are integral to policy thinking and its formulation. The smorgasbord of research ideas, involving both theoretical analysis and empirical evidence, presented in this volume, provides useful perspectives on the drivers that are continually reshaping the dynamism in the world around us and, in the process, integrates a multidisciplinary perspective of focusing on several pertinent policy challenges.This book will be useful to researchers and students of economics, finance and public policy, economic theorists, microeconomics, and even to those with a broader canvass such as researchers in macroeconomics, international economics, business, management and marketing.
Perspectives on Educational Quality: Illustrative Outcomes on Primary and Secondary Schooling in the Netherlands (SpringerBriefs in Education)
by Jaap Scheerens, Hans Luyten and Jan van RavensThe quality of education is a term that is frequently used in public debates. Understood in the sense of education being “generally okay” , or rather, most frequently, as “not okay”. Perhaps there is an overruling nostalgic view that formerly education was better than today. In scholarly discourse there are those who maintain that the quality of education is an illusive term, with varying interpretations in different settings and by different stakeholders. In this book the complexity of the concept of education quality is recognized, but a conceptual framework is presented that makes quality, despite its complexity, amenable to rational and empirical analysis. Productivity, equity, effectiveness, efficiency and responsiveness of education systems are seen as key facets of quality. A concrete set of indicators is presented that makes for the measurement of these quality facets. In the second part of the book the quality framework is applied to an analysis of the quality of education in the Netherlands. Common sense in the Netherlands is dominated by the view that the quality of education is a course for serious concern. Some recent quality reviews take the same pessimistic outlook. However, the current overview of indicators on the Dutch system, seen from an international perspective, presents a picture that is much more positive. Still there is always room for improvement, in the case of the Netherlands this should probably be sought in diminishing the selectivity of the system as a way to improve participation in higher education.
Perspectives on Energy Risk
by André Dorsman Timur Gök Mehmet Baha KaranSince the Industrial Revolution, the efficiency with which energy resources are extracted and converted into work has played a prominent role in the accumulation of material wealth. The prominent role of energy resources, in conjunction with their scarcity and their uneven geographic distribution, has had significant repercussions. Collaboration, competition and conflict among nation states for energy resources have created global, geopolitical and market risks. In this volume, academic scholars and practitioners assess these risks from global, geopolitical and market perspectives. They do so by presenting empirical research and discussing our current understanding of this quickly changing and developing field.This is the third volume in a series on energy organized by the Centre for Energy and Value Issues (CEVI). The previous volumes in the series were Financial Aspects in Energy (2011) and Energy Economics and Financial Markets (2012).
Perspectives On Health And Human Rights (Second Edition)
by Sofia Gruskin George Annas Michael Grodin Stephen MarksPromoting and protecting human rights is fundamental to promoting and protecting health. Both those in public health and human rights need to understand that discrimination and other violations of human rights directly determine health and well-being and that they must deal directly with the underlying social issues that largely determine who lives and who dies. This collection will be a follow-up/companion volume to the successful Health and Human Rights: A Reader which was edited by the same group of scholars and published in 1999. New issues covered in this volume include: *emerging technologies *family and health *responding to violence *methods and strategies The earlier volume was more concerned with establishing the link between the concepts, whereas this volume assumes that link and then addresses strategies and methods for putting goals into practice.
Perspectives On Health And Human Rights (Second Edition) (PDF)
by Sofia Gruskin George Annas Michael Grodin Stephen MarksPromoting and protecting human rights is fundamental to promoting and protecting health. Both those in public health and human rights need to understand that discrimination and other violations of human rights directly determine health and well-being and that they must deal directly with the underlying social issues that largely determine who lives and who dies. This collection will be a follow-up/companion volume to the successful Health and Human Rights: A Reader which was edited by the same group of scholars and published in 1999. New issues covered in this volume include: *emerging technologies *family and health *responding to violence *methods and strategies The earlier volume was more concerned with establishing the link between the concepts, whereas this volume assumes that link and then addresses strategies and methods for putting goals into practice.
Perspectives on Inclusive Policies for Development in India: In Honour of Prof. R. Radhakrishna (India Studies in Business and Economics)
by Saiyed Raza Hashim Rahul Mukherji Brajaraja MishraThis book presents perspectives by eminent economists, social scientists and policy makers, exploring in depth the post-reform developments in India, including issues pertaining to growth and equity, issues which have been at the core of life-time work of Prof. R. Radhakrishna. The book brings out how some public policy instruments created to promote growth have turned out to be regressive, promoting inequalities and creating a highly asymmetric federalism in India. It examines the efficacy of fiscal and monetary reforms and also emphasises the need for strengthening the institutions of governance, particularly judiciary and police, in order to boost investors’ confidence. It presents exercises in econometric modelling for explaining factors in growth and vetting policies, and explores the issue of governance and institutions. The book provides insights into the working of an emerging economy and a large democracy which has to strive for public acceptability of the tensions of its negotiations between equity and growth. With its depth of academic excellence and breadth of topics covered, it is a ‘must read’ for researchers, policy makers, industry watchers, think tanks, and NGOs.
Perspectives on International Political Theory in Europe (Trends in European IR Theory)
by Vassilios PaipaisThis book offers a timely exploration of the still burgeoning field of International Political Theory (IPT). IPT is approached in this volume not merely as a subfield at the margins of the discipline of International Relations (IR) but rather as a key dimension of theorising international relations that challenges disciplinary, theoretical, methodological, and geographical boundaries and inseminates other theoretical IR traditions. Chapters in this volume approach IPT as a theoretical tradition that emphasises and interrogates the philosophical, historical, ethical, normative, institutional, and aesthetic dimensions of international relations and world politics. In so doing, they explore IPT as a European theoretical tradition to stress that, paradoxically, it is only by provincializing Europe and its intellectual traditions that one may finally appreciate what is truly universal in them. This is a refreshingly different take on IPT sure to be of interest to students and scholars of IPT, IR and political theory.
Perspectives on Justice, Indigeneity, Gender, and Security in Human Rights Research
by Laura E. Reimer Katerina StandishThis book is a compendium of emergent global Human Rights Scholarship offering current ruminations on justice, indigeneity, gender, security, and human rights. This edited collection examines Access to Justice, Allyship and Equality, Human Rights and Social Justice, the Rights of Indigenous People, Indigenous Rights and the University, Transgender Healthcare, Femicide, Women Workers, Extremism and Misogyny, Human Rights and Aging, cyberwarfare, climate change.
Perspectives on Keynesian Economics
by Arie Arnon, Jimmy Weinblatt and Warren YoungThis book combines historical and policy-oriented perspectives on the relevance of the Keynesian approach for economic theory, policy, and crisis analysis. The first part focuses on historical, theoretical, and methodological issues, and puts them in context with current developments. The second part focuses on the application of the Keynesian approach to modeling the economy, policy-making, and analyzing the ongoing crisis of the early 21st century. Bringing together contributions by leading macroeconomists such as Laidler, Cukierman, Colander and Boyer, and leading historians of economics such as Hollander, Boianovsky, Marcuzzo, Dimand, Witztum, Young, deVroey and Arnon, the book offers a comprehensive overview of Keynesian economics today. One of the book’s most essential features are the commentaries on the papers, which promote a cross-fertilization between macroeconomists and historians of economics, providing, in conjunction with the papers themselves, a balanced outlook on the current relevance of Keynesian economics.
Perspectives on Lifelong Learning and Global Citizenship: Beyond the Classroom (Sustainable Development Goals Series)
by Sarah Stanlick Whitney SzmodisThis book lays the groundwork for the future of global citizenship, and it discusses where we are now, where to go from here, and how all of this fits into a lifelong learning context. It incorporates case studies, meta-narratives, and empirical studies to support cosmopolitanism through a lifelong learning lens and is a must read for educators, activists, non-governmental organizations, civil society, and community organizations. The framing for this book is with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 in mind: ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all, with the intent that all learners will acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to promote “sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development” (UN Sustainable Development Goal, target 4.7). It is through this lens that this book showcases the work of researchers, practitioners, civil society, and thought leaders in global citizenship for lifelong learning. While this tension between nationalism and cosmopolitanism exists, the wheels of globalization still turn and shape our local, national, and global connections. Through this exploration, this book lifts up examples of global citizenship education done well, across the age spectrum, and in a variety of contexts. The binding factor is the core values, ethics, and moral structure of a world in collaboration toward its larger human and ecological thriving. It unpacks complex topics such as ethical and cultural relativism, accountability and responsibility in a global world, decolonial education and unmaking ideas of “development”, and ethical models for community-based global learning and engagement. What voices are missing in the discussion of global learning and global citizenship education?
Perspectives on Local Governance Across Europe: Insights on Local State-Society Relations (Palgrave Studies in Sub-National Governance)
by Björn Egner Hubert Heinelt Jakub Lysek Patricia Silva Filipe TelesThis book focuses on local state-society relations, understood as institutionalised relations between local municipalities across Europe and individual, collective or corporate societal actors. It presents a typology of local state-society relations, and applies this to characterise the most relevant institutionalised relations between local government and societal actors at the municipal level in 22 European countries. The comparative volume will clarify whether or not patterns can be detected in the makeup of different types of networks; whether or not these patterns are country-specific or policy-specific; and why cases exist which are so distinct that they are not subsumable under a certain pattern. Taken together, this book will go beyond national typologies to emphasise the role of agency and innovation in particular policy sectors, providing a major contribution in the study of the local governance of Europe. It will appeal to scholars and students of local governance, public administration, urban planning and European studies.
Perspectives on Marital Dissolution: Divorce Biographies in Singapore
by Sharon Ee QuahThis book presents a sociological account on marital dissolution that engages and extends theorisations on individualisation and the contemporary organisation of personal relationships to discuss how the experience of divorce might not be all debilitating but on the contrary, could provide opportunities for productivity, self-responsibility and relationship formation. Using Singaporean divorcees’ narrative accounts, the book explores how divorcees shape and construct what the author refers to as, a divorce biography, to end their unsatisfying marriages, cope with the crisis, negotiate the associated risks, organise post-divorce personal communities and make future plans. It uncovers how divorcees navigate their divorce biographies within the economic, policy and social context they are located in and examines the conditions that facilitate or hinder the pursuit of productivity in different facets of their post-divorce lives. Far from a standard story of divorce, this book presents the diversity and complexity of Singaporean divorce biographies. The research challenges negative discourses associated with divorce and offers a more nuanced perspective by discussing both the precarious and productive aspects of the experience. More importantly, it provides a critical discussion on the limited definition of family prevalent in Singaporean society, and shows how post-divorce family life and practices continue to thrive despite the rupture of marriage.
Perspectives on Military Intelligence from the First World War to Mali: Between Learning and Law
by Floribert Baudet Eleni Braat Jeoffrey Van Woensel Aad WeverMany intelligence practitioners feel that the statutory footing on which intelligenceagencies have been placed forms an impediment to confronting unprecedented contemporarychallenges. On the basis of case studies spanning the period from the First WorldWar to the present, this book argues that while the intelligence community in the era ofglobalization has indeed come to face new and complex challenges that require adaptation,operating in demanding and changing environments is not new at all. This book questionsthe conventional wisdom of 9/11 or the end of the Cold War as caesurae. It also argues thatthe ability to adapt, innovate, question and learn from past experience is crucial for thesuccess of intelligence organizations, rather than ever-expanding funding.Agencies’ ability to reflect, adapt and learn from experience determines their subsequentcapability to deliver. One key development resulting from globalization is the markedincrease in cooperation between intelligence agencies of different countries on the onehand, and between investigative agencies and intelligence agencies on the other. This hasled to concerns over human rights and privacy and to increased calls for accountability andimproved oversight as the increase in cooperation between organizations operating globallyalso provides scope for the circumvention of domestic restrictions.This book proposes an instrument to assess the effectiveness of existing accountabilityarrangements and offers new insights into the role of (military) intelligence in anumber of crises, e.g., the 1962 Cold War confrontation over Western New Guinea, and thefunctioning of intelligence in peacekeeping operations ranging from Srebrenica to Mali.Thematically comprehensive, it offers a mixture of historical, legal, operational, and policyaspects, analyzed through the lens of institutional learning, bringing together academic andpractitioners’ perspectives. The focus lies not only on the familiar Anglo-Saxon experiencebut also on cases from India, the Netherlands, South East Asia, Bosnia, Lebanon, and Mali.The book is aimed at both scholars and practitioners studying and/or working in the fieldof civil and military intelligence, and those involved in international relations and internationalhumanitarian law/human rights law. It brings together contributions from authorswho spoke at the Conference to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Dutch MilitaryIntelligence and Security Service, organized by the Netherlands Intelligence Studies Association(NISA), and from a number of authors who were specifically invited to participate.
Perspectives on Nationalism and War
by J. Comaroff P. SternThis volume considers recent studies that move beyond primordialism and its antithesis, social constructivism, to search for new insights to illuminate the nature of nationalism and its link to war. The authors also explore the role of shared interests, the history of peoples, elites and states, political imperatives, propaganda, and psychological predispositions. This combination provides a brillant, new look at nationalism and war-one that delves deeply into ethnic identity and the willingness of people to fight and die for nation-states.
Perspectives on Nationalism and War
by John L. Comaroff Paul C. SternThis volume considers recent studies that move beyond primordialism and its antithesis, social constructivism, to search for new insights to illuminate the nature of nationalism and its link to war. The authors also explore the role of shared interests, the history of peoples, elites and states, political imperatives, propaganda, and psychological predispositions. This combination provides a brillant, new look at nationalism and war-one that delves deeply into ethnic identity and the willingness of people to fight and die for nation-states.
Perspectives on Peacekeeping and Atrocity Prevention: Expanding Stakeholders and Regional Arrangements (Humanitarian Solutions in the 21st Century)
by David Curran Trudy Fraser Larry Roeder Robert ZuberThe current challenges and potential future of peacekeeping in an increasingly complex world take center stage in this far-reaching collection. Contributors advance a nuanced picture of post-conflict environments across different areas of the globe while considering possible deployments of peacekeeping, traditional military and UN forces in semi-autonomous complementary roles. Longstanding debate topics such as the need for a standing UN army and the field implementation of global right-to-protect concepts are discussed, as are emerging ideas in civilian protection, atrocity prevention and balancing triage operations with long-term peacebuilding efforts. Other dispatches chronicle key issues and concerns regarding peacekeeping operations in Brazil, China and diverse regions of Africa. Included in the coverage:Protecting strangers: reflections on a cosmopolitan peacekeeping capacity. Towards a standing UN force for peacekeeping.Challenges posed by intervention brigades and other coercive measures in support of the protection of civilians.Addressing the criminal accountability of peacekeepers.The evolution of China’s role in peacekeeping and atrocity crime prevention.Businesses and investors as stakeholders in atrocity crime prevention.Multiple viewpoints, a global scope and real-world clarity make Perspectives on Peacekeeping and Atrocity Prevention an invaluable resource to advance the work of humanitarians, criminologists and students of and professionals in international relations. "This collection of articles effectively points to the challenges, complexities and sensitivities of preventing and halting mass atrocity crimes in part through the use of UN peacekeeping operations. The volume also inspires further efforts, including the integration of new and younger stakeholders, to mitigate massive human rights crimes and fully implement the Responsibility to Protect."Dr. György TatárChair, Budapest Centre for the International Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities“In a refreshing and engaging manner, this edited volume represents a much-needed contribution to the debate on how best to address current security threats given the limitations and the possibilities of peacekeeping and atrocity prevention. A compelling feature of the book is its exploration of often-neglected stakeholder perspectives alongside first-hand knowledge of the UN system and astute academic observations of key peacekeeping concepts, mandates and practices. Each chapter’s concluding recommendations invite scholars and policy makers to critically interrogate their own beliefs, assumptions and preferred solutions for keeping the peace and preventing mass atrocity violence.”Dr. Maria SternProfessor in Peace and Development Studies, School of Global StudiesUniversity of Gothenburg
Perspectives on Political Awareness: Conceptual, Theoretical and Methodological Issues
by Niels Nørgaard Kristensen Thomas Denk Maria Olson Trond SolhaugThis interdisciplinary volume presents a comprehensive framework to understand political awareness. Political awareness has become an important part of research on political attitudes and political behavior since the publication of John Zaller's work on political opinion. The authors elaborate on his theory and present a new conceptualization, which stipulates that political awareness is the attentiveness, knowledge, and understanding of politics. Hence, the book discusses different aspects, such as the concept of political awareness, its formation, significance, measurement, and exploration. The result is a new framework that addresses conceptual, theoretical, and methodological questions, such as: What does the concept mean? How to study political awareness? How is it connected to other orientations? How do children and youth develop political awareness? Addressing researchers and graduate students, as well as scholars in political science, sociology, and education, this book is a must-read for everybody interested in a better understanding of political awareness.
Perspectives on Political Parties: Classic Readings
by S. ScarrowPerspectives on Political Parties is a collection of primary documents that show the changing understandings of partisan politics during the nineteenth century, the first era in which parties played a central role in governing. The texts taken from British, American, German and French publication, speak to today's students and scholars of history and political science by showing the deep roots of still-current debates about representative democracy and mass politics. The reader is designed to fill a hole in contemporary teaching and scholarship by assembling hard to access sources that form the basis of modern debates about parties.
Perspectives on Presidential Leadership: An International View of the White House (Routledge Research in American Politics and Governance)
by Michael Patrick Cullinane Clare Frances ElliottIn 2011 Barack Obama invited ten distinguished biographers to the White House to ask them one question: which past American president should I emulate? This was not the first time Obama asked scholars this, but the answer he received would differ as presidential legacies waxed and waned. In 2008 Obama chose Lincoln; in 2009, Reagan; and in 2010, Theodore Roosevelt. Perspectives on Presidential Leadership is an examination of presidential legacy, and in particular an analysis of the first ever UK ranking of American presidents which took place in 2011. In thirteen chapters, thirteen individual presidential administrations are assessed. Some presidents have been considered a success, others a failure; both types are featured in these thirteen case studies in a measured attempt to understand how the perception of presidential leadership evolves, shifts, and contorts across three centuries of American politics. The case studies also derive from the expertise of the collected British, Irish and Canadian authors, all of whom are leading scholars in their fields, and many of which took part in the 2011 survey. At a time when understanding presidential legacy is in high demand, this book offers a unique international perspective. Through extended commentary and inter-disciplinary study of the UK perspective it provides groundbreaking research.
Perspectives on Presidential Leadership: An International View of the White House (Routledge Research in American Politics and Governance)
by Michael Patrick Cullinane Clare Frances ElliottIn 2011 Barack Obama invited ten distinguished biographers to the White House to ask them one question: which past American president should I emulate? This was not the first time Obama asked scholars this, but the answer he received would differ as presidential legacies waxed and waned. In 2008 Obama chose Lincoln; in 2009, Reagan; and in 2010, Theodore Roosevelt. Perspectives on Presidential Leadership is an examination of presidential legacy, and in particular an analysis of the first ever UK ranking of American presidents which took place in 2011. In thirteen chapters, thirteen individual presidential administrations are assessed. Some presidents have been considered a success, others a failure; both types are featured in these thirteen case studies in a measured attempt to understand how the perception of presidential leadership evolves, shifts, and contorts across three centuries of American politics. The case studies also derive from the expertise of the collected British, Irish and Canadian authors, all of whom are leading scholars in their fields, and many of which took part in the 2011 survey. At a time when understanding presidential legacy is in high demand, this book offers a unique international perspective. Through extended commentary and inter-disciplinary study of the UK perspective it provides groundbreaking research.
Perspectives on Rules of Origin: Analytical and Policy Insights from the Indian Experience
by R. Das R. RatnaRules of origin have emerged as one of the most controversial issues in any trade negotiations. This book analyzes the economics of rules of origin in regional trade agreements. It critically evaluates the empirical aspects, providing fresh perspectives on complex policy-negotiations and rules of origin implementation.