- Table View
- List View
Toward A Psychology of Situations: An Interactional Perspective
by David Magnusson D. MagnussonPublished in the year 1981, Toward a Psychology of Situations is a valuable contribution to the field of Social Psychology.
Toward Robotic Socially Believable Behaving Systems - Volume I: Modeling Emotions (Intelligent Systems Reference Library #105)
by Anna Esposito Lakhmi C. JainThis volume is a collection of research studies on the modeling of emotions in complex autonomous systems. Several experts in the field are reporting their efforts and reviewing the literature in order to shed lights on how the processes of coding and decoding emotional states took place in humans, which are the physiological, physical, and psychological variables involved, invent new mathematical models and algorithms to describe them, and motivate these investigations in the light of observable societal changes and needs, such as the aging population and the cost of health care services. The consequences are the implementation of emotionally and socially believable machines, acting as helpers into domestic spheres, where emotions drive behaviors and actions. The contents of the book are highly multidisciplinary since the modeling of emotions in robotic socially believable systems requires a holistic perspective on topics coming from different research domains such as computer science, engineering, sociology, psychology, linguistic, and information communication. The book is of interest both to experts and students since last research works on a so complex multidisciplinary topic are described in a neat and didactical scientific language.
Toward the Integration of Theory, Methods, Research, and Utilization (Advances in Environment, Behavior and Design #4)
by GARY T. MOORE and ROBERT W. MARANSThis fourth volume in the Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design series continues the intent of earlier volumes by exploring new directions in the multidisciplinary environment-behavior (EB or EBS) field. The series is organized around a framework of theory, methods, research, and utilization that some say has defined the field for the past 15 years. This fourth volume is devoted to chapters that explore the integration of theory, quantitative and qualitative research, and utilization in policy, planning, and architec ture. The authors selected for this volume exemplify the multidisciplinary character of the field-they have been selected from architecture, environ mental psychology, environmental studies, housing research, landscape ar chitecture, social anthropology, social ecology, urban design, and urban planning; from academe and practice; and from Australia, Europe, and North America. HISTORY OF THE ADVANCES SERIES The idea for the series emerged in 1983 at meetings of the Board of Directors of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA). Sev eral publishers were contacted about the possibility of an EDRA Annual Review. Eliot Werner at Plenum Press expressed great interest but suggested that an Advances series would be more appropriate since publication could be tied to a less specific timetable. EDRA, Plenum, and the editors signed a contract in June 1984 for three volumes, with an open door for oral agreements between Plenum and the editors after that time. Four volumes have been published (Volume 1, 1987; Volume 2,1989; Volume 3,1991; and the current Volume 4), each containing 10 to 12 chapters.
Toward the Next Generation of Bystander Prevention of Sexual and Relationship Violence: Action Coils to Engage Communities (SpringerBriefs in Criminology)
by Victoria L. BanyardThis briefs integrates and synthesizes an array of research about who helps others and under what conditions and discusses the implications of this research for a bystander intervention focused prevention agenda to reduce sexual and relationship violence in schools and communities. It combines an examination of bystander helping behavior in the specific context of sexual and relationship violence with social psychological research on bystander behavior outside that context in order to inform prevention efforts. This briefs is designed for researchers, practitioners, and students concerned about violence prevention and who are interesting in bystander intervention as a promising prevention strategy. Connections between research and practice are the foundation of this briefs. The briefs addresses the following questions: What is the promise of a bystander approach to violence prevention? Where does it fit within the spectrum of sexual and relationship violence prevention? How do we expand theoretical models of helping behavior to the unique context of interpersonal violence? How can we bring in research from other areas of health behavior change and developmental research on violence to inform a broader bystander action model? It provides a new synthesis and model of bystander interaction. It outlines a strategic plan for new research and next steps in prevention practices.
Toward the Practice of theory-based Instruction: Current Cognitive theories and their Educational Promise
by Anne McKeough Judy L. LupartThis unique contribution to the field of education offers a comparative look at the application of cognitive theory to instruction. Six leading researchers, representing the three theoretical positions which guide the study of cognition -- socio- cultural, information processing, and neo-Piagetian approaches -- discuss their theories and present empirical evidence in support of cognitively-based instructional practice. An introductory chapter describes the basic tenets of each tradition and its general educational posture, and a concluding chapter compares the contributors' views and draws implications for key educational issues. These open-ended discussions of the contrasts and overlaps in the various positions should stimulate readers to formulate personal opinions on cognitively-based instruction.
Toward the Practice of theory-based Instruction: Current Cognitive theories and their Educational Promise
by Anne McKeough Judy Lee LupartThis unique contribution to the field of education offers a comparative look at the application of cognitive theory to instruction. Six leading researchers, representing the three theoretical positions which guide the study of cognition -- socio- cultural, information processing, and neo-Piagetian approaches -- discuss their theories and present empirical evidence in support of cognitively-based instructional practice. An introductory chapter describes the basic tenets of each tradition and its general educational posture, and a concluding chapter compares the contributors' views and draws implications for key educational issues. These open-ended discussions of the contrasts and overlaps in the various positions should stimulate readers to formulate personal opinions on cognitively-based instruction.
Toward the Psychological Humanities: A Modest Manifesto for the Future of Psychology (Advances in Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology)
by Mark FreemanMark Freeman’s inspiring account of the burgeoning field of the psychological humanities presents a clear and compelling vision of what the discipline of psychology might become. Valuable though the scientific perspective has been for advancing the discipline, Freeman maintains that significant dimensions of the human experience elude this perspective and call for an entirely different kind of psychology, one more closely tied to the arts and humanities. Issuing his call for the psychological humanities in the form of a ten chapter "manifesto," Freeman’s groundbreaking book offers a comprehensive rationale for a more inclusive, pluralistic, and artful approach to exploring the psychological world in all of its potential complexity, obscurity, and beauty. Engaging and accessible, this bold, provocative book is destined to spark significant discussion and debate in audiences including advanced undergraduates, postgraduates, and professionals in the field of psychology with interests in theoretical and philosophical psychology, history of psychology, clinical psychology, humanistic psychology, and qualitative psychology. It will also be welcomed by those in philosophy, literature, and the arts, as well as anyone intrigued by psychological life who may be interested in encountering a vital new approach to examining the human condition.
Toward the Psychological Humanities: A Modest Manifesto for the Future of Psychology (Advances in Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology)
by Mark FreemanMark Freeman’s inspiring account of the burgeoning field of the psychological humanities presents a clear and compelling vision of what the discipline of psychology might become. Valuable though the scientific perspective has been for advancing the discipline, Freeman maintains that significant dimensions of the human experience elude this perspective and call for an entirely different kind of psychology, one more closely tied to the arts and humanities. Issuing his call for the psychological humanities in the form of a ten chapter "manifesto," Freeman’s groundbreaking book offers a comprehensive rationale for a more inclusive, pluralistic, and artful approach to exploring the psychological world in all of its potential complexity, obscurity, and beauty. Engaging and accessible, this bold, provocative book is destined to spark significant discussion and debate in audiences including advanced undergraduates, postgraduates, and professionals in the field of psychology with interests in theoretical and philosophical psychology, history of psychology, clinical psychology, humanistic psychology, and qualitative psychology. It will also be welcomed by those in philosophy, literature, and the arts, as well as anyone intrigued by psychological life who may be interested in encountering a vital new approach to examining the human condition.
Toward the Validation of Dynamic Psychotherapy: A Replication
by D. H. MalanThe final judgment depends on how much emphasis is given to the residual difficulties. SCORES Team 1 3.5 2.5 Team 2 2.5 2.5 Mean 2.75 THE o,INICAL MATERIAL I THE COMPANY SECRETARY 59 The Company Secretary SUMMARY Category. Short, unfavorable (12 sessions, outcome 1.0). A married man of forty-three complaining of indigestion and partial impotence. Final follow-up suggests that he was wrongly assessed initially and many factors in the situation between him and his wife were not elicited. The initial focus seems to have been wrongly selected, and the main response to interpretation came far later on an unexpected theme. CONTRIBUTION TO THE CORRELATIONS WITH OUTCOME Motivation: Positive (intermediate motivation, poor outcome). Focality: Major disagreement between the judges. Transference iparent interpretations: Strongly positive (low score, poor outcome). DETAILS OF PATIENT AND THERAPIST 1. Patient Sex M. Age 43. Marital status Married. Occupation Company secretary in the head office of a chain of radio and electrical shops. Complaints (1) Indigestion, (2) partial impotence, for six years. What seems to bring His wife is now pressing him to seek treatment patient now for his sexual problem. 2. Therapist Code G. Sex M. PSYCHIATRIC HISTORY His first attack of gastric trouble occurred about six years ago and lasted for a few months. It consisted of attacks of left epigastric pain.
Toward Transformation in Social Knowledge (Springer Series in Social Psychology)
by K. J. GergenThis century has been characterized by a strong and pervasive belief in "certainty through science. " It is a belief that has been nurtured by philosophers, scientists, and governing bodies alike. And, where vocal reassurance has failed to convince, modem technology has more than compensated. It has, in effect, been a century in at last to be making significant headway toward objective which humankind seemed and enduring truth. Yet, as the century winds toward its conclusion, this optimistic belief has begun to confront a challenging array of attacks. Widespread signals of concern are increasingly evident, and in the philosophy of science little but remnants remain of the bold rationale that once promised truth through method. One now senses a profound alteration taking place in both the concept of knowledge and of science-an alteration that may prove to be as significant as the Copernican revolution, the emergence of Darwinism, or the development of Freudian theory. As a result of the latter transformations, humans are no longer seen as the center of the universe, as essentially different from animals, or as fully conscious of the wellsprings of their activity. In the present case, however, we confront the loss of the human capacity for objective knowledge.
Towards a Deeper Understanding of Consciousness: Selected works of Max Velmans (World Library of Psychologists)
by Max VelmansIn the World Library of Psychologists series, international experts themselves present career-long collections of what they judge to be their finest pieces - extracts from books, key articles, salient research findings, and their major practical theoretical contributions. In this volume Max Velmans reflects on his long-spanning and varied career, considers the highs and lows in a brand new introduction and offers reactions to those who have responded to his published work over the years. This book offers a unique and compelling collection of the best publications in consciousness studies from one of the few psychologists to treat the topic systematically and seriously. Velmans’ approach is multi-faceted and represents a convergence of numerous fields of study – culminating in fascinating insights that are of interest to philosopher, psychologist and neuroscientist alike. With continuing contemporary relevance, and significant historical impact, this collection of works is an essential resource for all those engaged or interested in the field of consciousness studies and the philosophy of the mind.
Towards a Deeper Understanding of Consciousness: Selected works of Max Velmans (World Library of Psychologists)
by Max VelmansIn the World Library of Psychologists series, international experts themselves present career-long collections of what they judge to be their finest pieces - extracts from books, key articles, salient research findings, and their major practical theoretical contributions. In this volume Max Velmans reflects on his long-spanning and varied career, considers the highs and lows in a brand new introduction and offers reactions to those who have responded to his published work over the years. This book offers a unique and compelling collection of the best publications in consciousness studies from one of the few psychologists to treat the topic systematically and seriously. Velmans’ approach is multi-faceted and represents a convergence of numerous fields of study – culminating in fascinating insights that are of interest to philosopher, psychologist and neuroscientist alike. With continuing contemporary relevance, and significant historical impact, this collection of works is an essential resource for all those engaged or interested in the field of consciousness studies and the philosophy of the mind.
Towards a Framework for Representational Competence in Science Education (Models and Modeling in Science Education #11)
by Kristy L. DanielThis book covers the current state of thinking and what it means to have a framework of representational competence and how such theory can be used to shape our understanding of the use of representations in science education, assessment, and instruction. Currently, there is not a consensus in science education regarding representational competence as a unified theoretical framework. There are multiple theories of representational competence in the literature that use differing perspectives on what competence means and entails. Furthermore, dependent largely on the discipline, language discrepancies cause a potential barrier for merging ideas and pushing forward in this area. While a single unified theory may not be a realistic goal, there needs to be strides taken toward working as a unified research community to better investigate and interpret representational competence. An objective of this book is to initiate thinking about a representational competence theoretical framework across science educators, learning scientists, practitioners and scientists. As such, we have divided the chapters into three major themes to help push our thinking forward: presenting current thinking about representational competence in science education, assessing representational competence within learners, and using our understandings to structure instruction.
Towards a Jungian Theory of the Ego (Research in Analytical Psychology and Jungian Studies)
by Karen Evers-FaheyDespite their prevalence and weight in many of his collected works and letters, Jung did not articulate a general theory of the ego and consciousness. Towards a Jungian Theory of the Ego examines the development of Jung’s concept of the ego as he expanded and revised this concept, from his earliest formulations about consciousness while a student, to his mature thoughts at the end of his life. Drawing on Ego Psychology as a theoretical framework, Evers-Fahey proposes that Jung uses the concept of ego in four distinct ways and that he developed and used his ego concept based on two discrete paradigms. These distinctions explain the confusion and ambiguity found when examining the development of Jung’s analytical psychology over his lifetime. This book provides an examination of ego development and ego defenses based on a unique Jungian standpoint, as well as discussion of the relationship between the ego and the Self and the ego and ‘the individuum’. Furthermore, the inclusion of a historical framework helps to place the development of these concepts in context. This book proposes a theory of ego psychology based on Jungian theory rather than traditional psychoanalytic theory, thereby filling a gap in the knowledge of Jungian theory. The book will be essential reading for academics and postgraduate students engaged in the study of Jungian psychology and psychoanalytic theory and will also be valued by those interested in Jung and ego psychology more generally.
Towards a Jungian Theory of the Ego (Research in Analytical Psychology and Jungian Studies)
by Karen Evers-FaheyDespite their prevalence and weight in many of his collected works and letters, Jung did not articulate a general theory of the ego and consciousness. Towards a Jungian Theory of the Ego examines the development of Jung’s concept of the ego as he expanded and revised this concept, from his earliest formulations about consciousness while a student, to his mature thoughts at the end of his life. Drawing on Ego Psychology as a theoretical framework, Evers-Fahey proposes that Jung uses the concept of ego in four distinct ways and that he developed and used his ego concept based on two discrete paradigms. These distinctions explain the confusion and ambiguity found when examining the development of Jung’s analytical psychology over his lifetime. This book provides an examination of ego development and ego defenses based on a unique Jungian standpoint, as well as discussion of the relationship between the ego and the Self and the ego and ‘the individuum’. Furthermore, the inclusion of a historical framework helps to place the development of these concepts in context. This book proposes a theory of ego psychology based on Jungian theory rather than traditional psychoanalytic theory, thereby filling a gap in the knowledge of Jungian theory. The book will be essential reading for academics and postgraduate students engaged in the study of Jungian psychology and psychoanalytic theory and will also be valued by those interested in Jung and ego psychology more generally.
Towards a Mental Health System that Works: A professional guide to getting psychological help
by Michael J ScottResearch has established that there are efficacious psychological therapies for most common mental disorders. In Towards a Mental Health System That Works, psychologist Michael J Scott details the reforms necessary to ensure that consumers of services receive an evidence-based treatment. This book examines: the social significance of interventions that target mental-wellbeing and psychological disorder why treatments are ‘lost in translation’ from research to routine practice steps that can be taken towards a translation that better recognises the complexity of research and ensures fidelity to an evidence-based treatment protocol the deleterious effects of current provision on clients and therapists. Towards a Mental Health System that Works is a valuable resource for therapists, mental health practitioners, Clinical Commissioning Groups and politicians, enabling them to critically evaluate service provision, distil what constitutes cost-effective evidence-based mental health practice across the whole spectrum of disorders and client populations, and chart a new direction. It also serves as a guide to consumers of mental health services, as well as their friends and family, allowing them to understand what they are likely to experience and what they can demand.
Towards a Mental Health System that Works: A professional guide to getting psychological help
by Michael J ScottResearch has established that there are efficacious psychological therapies for most common mental disorders. In Towards a Mental Health System That Works, psychologist Michael J Scott details the reforms necessary to ensure that consumers of services receive an evidence-based treatment. This book examines: the social significance of interventions that target mental-wellbeing and psychological disorder why treatments are ‘lost in translation’ from research to routine practice steps that can be taken towards a translation that better recognises the complexity of research and ensures fidelity to an evidence-based treatment protocol the deleterious effects of current provision on clients and therapists. Towards a Mental Health System that Works is a valuable resource for therapists, mental health practitioners, Clinical Commissioning Groups and politicians, enabling them to critically evaluate service provision, distil what constitutes cost-effective evidence-based mental health practice across the whole spectrum of disorders and client populations, and chart a new direction. It also serves as a guide to consumers of mental health services, as well as their friends and family, allowing them to understand what they are likely to experience and what they can demand.
Towards a Philosophy of Caring in Higher Education: Pedagogy and Nuances of Care
by Yusef WaghidThis book advances a re-imagined view of caring in higher education. The author proposes an argument of rhythmic caring, whereby teachers hold back or release their judgments in such a way that students’ judgments are influenced accordingly. In doing so, the author argues that rhythmic caring encourages students to become more willing and confident in articulating their understandings, judgments and opinions, rather than being prematurely judged and prevented from re-articulating themselves. Thus, rhythmic caring can engender a different understanding of higher education: one that is connected to the cultivation of values such as autonomy, justice, empathy, mutual respect and Ubuntu (human dignity and interdependence). This book will be of interest and value to students and scholars of caring within education, as well as Ubuntu caring through the African context.
Towards a Psychosomatic Conception of Hypochondria: The Impeded Thought
by Martine DerzelleA rigorous and groundbreaking study. Martine Derzelle is the first researcher to approach hypochondria as a relational pathology. Martine Derzelle is the first researcher to approach hypochondria as a relational pathology.The author tackles a subject that has puzzled care professionals for decades: hypochondria. Martine Derzelle confronts all specialists (psychotherapists, psychiatrists, doctors, psychosomaticians) with the paradox of this pathology and the theoretical void on which the approach to those patients who express a suffering of various kinds has stood for more than a century.In the first part, the author highlights the lack of theoretical elaboration on hypochondria in the existent literature; in the second part, on the basis of clinical examples, she analyzes the nature of the disease, and then offers a completely innovative theoretical elaboration. Finally, in the third part, she proposes a new and specific approach to treating this pathology at both the theoretical and clinical levels within the framework of psychoanalysis and implementing key concepts from relational psychosomatics.
Towards a Radical Redefinition of Psychology: The selected works of Miller Mair (World Library of Mental Health)
by Miller MairThe World Library of Mental Health celebrates the important contributions to mental health made by leading experts in their individual fields. Each author has compiled a career-long collection of what they consider to be their finest pieces: extracts from books, journals, articles, major theoretical and practical contributions, and salient research findings. Miller Mair, clinical psychologist and psychotherapist, devoted his life to developing a psychology that provided a radical alternative to the behavioural, and latterly cognitive-behavioural, approaches that have dominated the field. He presented this work in a wide range of publications and conference papers, and prior to his untimely death in 2011 he had selected a number of these for a volume of his collected works. This book is based upon Miller’s selection, and includes several previously unpublished papers as well as others that are now out of print. Miller was considerably influenced by George Kelly’s personal construct psychology, as is apparent in most of his writings. However, his papers on psychology and psychotherapy also draw upon an extraordinarily wide range of other fields of knowledge, including imagery; metaphor; storytelling and narrative; rhetoric; discourse and conversation; poetry; and spirituality. These concerns are reflected in the contributions selected for this volume, which also demonstrate the variation in his style of writing from the more conventionally academic to the personal and poetic as he developed a ‘poetics of experience’ and a stance of ‘conversational inquiry’. Miller’s final publication was entitled ‘Enchanting psychology’, and it is hoped that this volume will provide an antidote to the disenchantment that many readers may feel with mechanistic and reductionist approaches in psychology and its clinical applications, and more generally in health service rhetoric and policies. As these writings vividly demonstrate, a clinical psychologist and psychotherapist can, and should, also be a poet, artist, and storyteller. The volume will be of value to readers previously unfamiliar with Miller’s ideas, but also to those who know his work, who will find here the first published selection of his papers.
Towards a Radical Redefinition of Psychology: The selected works of Miller Mair (World Library of Mental Health)
by Miller MairThe World Library of Mental Health celebrates the important contributions to mental health made by leading experts in their individual fields. Each author has compiled a career-long collection of what they consider to be their finest pieces: extracts from books, journals, articles, major theoretical and practical contributions, and salient research findings. Miller Mair, clinical psychologist and psychotherapist, devoted his life to developing a psychology that provided a radical alternative to the behavioural, and latterly cognitive-behavioural, approaches that have dominated the field. He presented this work in a wide range of publications and conference papers, and prior to his untimely death in 2011 he had selected a number of these for a volume of his collected works. This book is based upon Miller’s selection, and includes several previously unpublished papers as well as others that are now out of print. Miller was considerably influenced by George Kelly’s personal construct psychology, as is apparent in most of his writings. However, his papers on psychology and psychotherapy also draw upon an extraordinarily wide range of other fields of knowledge, including imagery; metaphor; storytelling and narrative; rhetoric; discourse and conversation; poetry; and spirituality. These concerns are reflected in the contributions selected for this volume, which also demonstrate the variation in his style of writing from the more conventionally academic to the personal and poetic as he developed a ‘poetics of experience’ and a stance of ‘conversational inquiry’. Miller’s final publication was entitled ‘Enchanting psychology’, and it is hoped that this volume will provide an antidote to the disenchantment that many readers may feel with mechanistic and reductionist approaches in psychology and its clinical applications, and more generally in health service rhetoric and policies. As these writings vividly demonstrate, a clinical psychologist and psychotherapist can, and should, also be a poet, artist, and storyteller. The volume will be of value to readers previously unfamiliar with Miller’s ideas, but also to those who know his work, who will find here the first published selection of his papers.
Towards a Sociology of Cancer Caregiving: Time to Feel
by Rebecca E. OlsonOnce a synonym for death, cancer is now a prognosis of multiple probabilities and produces a world of uncertainty for carers. Drawing on rich, in-depth interview data and employing interactionist theories, Towards a Sociology of Cancer Caregiving explores carers' lived experiences, paying close attention to the ways in which spouse carers manage the ambiguity that pervades their orientations to the future, their responsibilities and their emotions. A detailed exploration of the temporal and emotional journeys of spouse carers of cancer patients, this volume raises and responds to new questions about how to conceptualise informal caregiving, offering a fresh theorisation of the uncertainty that now characterises cancer. As such, it will appeal to scholars of the sociologies of emotion, time and identity, and all those interested in the question of how to support informal carers.
Towards a Sociology of Cancer Caregiving: Time to Feel
by Rebecca E. OlsonOnce a synonym for death, cancer is now a prognosis of multiple probabilities and produces a world of uncertainty for carers. Drawing on rich, in-depth interview data and employing interactionist theories, Towards a Sociology of Cancer Caregiving explores carers' lived experiences, paying close attention to the ways in which spouse carers manage the ambiguity that pervades their orientations to the future, their responsibilities and their emotions. A detailed exploration of the temporal and emotional journeys of spouse carers of cancer patients, this volume raises and responds to new questions about how to conceptualise informal caregiving, offering a fresh theorisation of the uncertainty that now characterises cancer. As such, it will appeal to scholars of the sociologies of emotion, time and identity, and all those interested in the question of how to support informal carers.
Towards a Theoretical Neuroscience: from Cell Chemistry to Cognition (Springer Series in Cognitive and Neural Systems #8)
by L Andrew CowardThe book explains how to understand cognition in terms of brain anatomy, physiology and chemistry, using an approach adapted from techniques for understanding complex electronic systems. These techniques create hierarchies of information process based descriptions on different levels of detail, where higher levels contain less information and can therefore describe complete cognitive phenomena, but are more approximate. The nature of the approximations are well understood, and more approximate higher level descriptions can therefore be mapped to more precise detailed descriptions of any part of a phenomenon as required. Cognitive phenomena, the anatomy and connectivity of major brain structures, neuron physiology, and cellular chemistry are reviewed. Various cognitive tasks are described in terms of information processes performed by different major anatomical structures. These higher level descriptions are selectively mapped to more detailed physiological and chemical levels.
Towards a Theory of Thinking: Building Blocks for a Conceptual Framework (On Thinking)
by Britt M. Glatzeder Vinod Goel Albrecht MüllerWhat is Thinking? – Trying to Define an Equally Fascinating and Elusive Phenomenon Human thinking is probably the most complex phenomenon that evolution has come up with until now. There exists a broad spectrum of definitions, from subs- ing almost all processes of cognition to limiting it to language-based, sometimes even only to formalizable reasoning processes. We work with a “medium sized” definition according to which thinking encompasses all operations by which cog- tive agents link mental content in order to gain new insights or perspectives. Mental content is, thus, a prerequisite for and the substrate on which thinking operations are executed. The largely unconscious acts of perceptual object stabilization, ca- gorization, emotional evaluation – and retrieving all the above from memory inscriptions – are the processes by which mental content is generated, and are, therefore, seen as prerequisites for thinking operations. In terms of a differentia specifica, the notion of “thinking” is seen as narrower than the notion of “cognition” and as wider than the notion of “reasoning”. Thinking is, thus, seen as a subset of cognition processes; and reasoning processes are seen as a subset of thinking. Besides reasoning, the notion of thinking includes also nonexplicit, intuitive, and associative processes of linking mental content. According to this definition, thinking is not dependant on language, i. e. also many animals and certainly all mammals show early forms of thinking.